JUNIOR ENGLISH 



PHDEFFENDAL 





















































Class L3\fe3 l_ : 

Book_ 3 3_ 

PRESENTED BY 

to l \ < aA :- x A-- < A v t 














JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


BOOK ONE 



JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 

BOOK ONE 




BY 


P. H. DEFFENDALL, A M. 


PRINCIPAL OF THE BLAIR SCHOOL 
ST. LOUIS, MISSOURI 



paWvXO-q^S 



BOSTON 

LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY 
1923 












Copyright, 1923 , 

By Little, Brown, and Company. 
All rights reserved 

Gift 

Publish®* 

m »S2i 


£b. 76 


Printed in the United States of America 


MAR 3i -23 



FOREWORD 


This course in English is prepared to meet the 
demand for a new and more effective solution of the 
pressing problems of oral and written speech in 
junior high schools, and to bridge the chasm between 
the elementary and high schools where junior high 
schools have not been organized. It follows the 
most helpful suggestions presented in the Reorgani¬ 
zation of English in the Secondary Schools, Bulletin, 
1917, No. 2, National Bureau of Education, and the 
recent investigations of pupils' errors, particularly 
the study by Professor Charters and Miss Miller, 
and the more recent one by the Principals' Com¬ 
mittee of Allegheny County, Pennsylvania. 

The author has had much experience as a teacher 
and supervisor in elementary schools, as an adminis¬ 
trator and teacher in Ben Blewett Junior High, as 
a teacher in Soldan Senior High, and as a Super¬ 
visor of English in the Continuation Schools of 
St. Louis. This wide experience gives him such 
knowledge of the whole field of English as to qualify 
him for preparing such a course both as to content 
and method. 

Most of the material has been carefully tried out 
in class work and found successful. Almost all the 
model themes are taken directly from the work of 
pupils, particularly from the best. It is undoubt¬ 
edly true that these can be better comprehended 


VI 


FOREWORD 


and more easily imitated than illustrations from 
Milton or Addison. 

In the preparation of this course the author is 
guided by two well defined and accepted ideals in 
present-day education — the project method and 
the socialized-classroom procedure. The projects 
are not imposed; neither are they outlines nor class 
exercises labeled projects. They possess all the 
characteristics of the real project that can be put 
into a book that is to be used by the children as 
a text. 

In spirit we believe they possess the elements — 
purposing, planning, executing, and judging — as 
defined by Dr. Kilpatrick, and in scope they meet 
the standard as given by Dr. Charles A. McMurry. 
Situations based upon life issues are created through 
class discussions; out of these a probable life prob¬ 
lem springs and provides the stimulant for a project. 
Should some other problem than that given in the 
text arise, the procedure given in the text provides 
an excellent type for the unexpected project. Each 
project offers repeated opportunity for the pupil 
to exercise his power to purpose, plan, execute and 
judge. The free and natural movement of project 
work functions in the socialized-classroom method. 
Plenty of opportunity is given for the socialized 
recitation through committee work, club organiza¬ 
tion, voting, programs, etc. 

The work in composition is treated under thirty 
projects — ten for each grade. These projects 
involve life issues pertaining to civic interests, such 
as “Conducting a Health Campaign”, “Forming a 
Civics Club”, etc.; those involving vocational in¬ 
terest, as “Making a Study of an Occupation”, 


FOREWORD 


Vll 


etc.; those pertaining to school activities, as “The 
School Paper ”, etc.; and those that develop pride 
in good English and correct expression, as “Hold¬ 
ing a Public Debate.” 

A simple treatment of grammar and good usage 
is given in the second section of each chapter. A 
good deal of space is given to the treatment of the 
sentence as a basis for written composition and good 
usage, but in order to prevent strained correlation, 
grammar is not presented as an outgrowth. The 
course contains the material that is still alive and 
helpful. Difficult and unusual constructions have 
everywhere been omitted, since many difficulties 
in construction arise from an effort to explain idioms 
of speech according to the rules of formal grammar. 
This course would pass over such constructions 
lightly, explaining them merely as idioms. 

For the most part, sentences used in the exercises 
are such as were actually found in the speech and 
writing of pupils. Punctuation is treated along with 
the study of the sentence wherever the need arises, 
and the subject is made so easy, through few rules 
and many illustrations and explanations, that every 
boy and girl should be able to master the subject 
thoroughly. Wherever grammatical nomenclature 
is needed, that recommended by the Joint Committee 
of the National Education Association is used. 

Much space is devoted to good usage. This 
should please those who believe that grammar should 
be functional and that it should be shorn of its need¬ 
less classifications. We have gone directly to the 
work of the children to find their errors. We have 
found them. Guess-work, therefore, has been care¬ 
fully avoided. Many errors of the children are 


Vlll 


FOREWORD 


easy to correct, and the number is not great, but the 
need for good-usage drills is fully recognized. 

Superintendents, supervisors, and teachers who 
are endeavoring to vitalize curricula through the 
project method and socialized-classroom activity 
will find this English course constructed upon these 
ideals. 

L. W. Rader 

Assistant Superintendent 
St. Louis Public Schools 
St. Louis, Missouri 


SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 


The plan of this course is intended to be both simple 
and logical. There are two sections in each chapter 
— the first presenting the project and the second 
the practical grammar. There are thirty projects, 
ten for each grade, and the course is divided into three 
parts — Part One for the seventh grade, Part Two 
for the eighth, and Part Three for the ninth. 

The work of each chapter, together with such lit¬ 
erary selections as may be chosen for study, should 
require three or four weeks for completion. If de¬ 
sirable, however, you may expand the work of the 
projects by having your pupils plan additional exer¬ 
cises. You may even lead your pupils to suggest 
and undertake new projects similar to those given 
in the book. 

The suggestions given under the heading Planning 
the Work are intended mainly to serve as a guide 
for the pupils. You should see to it, therefore, 
that every boy and girl exercises initiative in plan¬ 
ning. 

To secure the best results, make use of the so¬ 
cialized recitation by putting into practice class 
organization, committee work, programs, debates, 
voting, etc. 

Near the end of the work in each grade there is a 
reading project designed to take care of the problem 
of supplementary reading. It need not be deferred 


X 


SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 


to the close of the year, however; you may take it 
up much earlier, if you wish to do so. 

No attempt has been made to treat grammar as 
an outgrowth of the project, as this would often 
result in a strained correlation. The work should 
be taken up in the order given, so as to serve as a 
foundation for correct speaking and writing. 


P. H. Deffendall 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Foreword.. 

Suggestions to Teachers .ix 

Projects .xv 

PART ONE. THE SEVENTH GRADE 

Chapter One 

I. Interesting Material for Speaking and Writing . 3 

II. Sentence-Making.11 

Chapter Two 

I. School and Community Motives for Composition . 17 

V II. Subject and Predicate.21 

Chapter Three 

I. Gathering Interesting Material from Language . 27 

II. The Linking Verb.29 

Chapter Four 

I. Dramatization.33 

II. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs .... 41 

Chapter Five 

I. The School Paper.51 

II. Auxiliary Verbs and the Verb Phrase ... 58 

Chapter Six 

I. The School Clubs.67 

II. Mood and Tense.74 

Chapter Seven 

I. The School Clubs (Continued) .... 80 

II. Modifiers. 86 







xii CONTENTS 


Chapter Eight 

I. A Health Campaign 
II. The Prepositional Phrase 

Chapter Nine 

I. A Safety-First Campaign 
II. The Clause 

Chapter Ten 

I. A Reading Club 
II. “Like” and “As If” 


PART TWO. THE EIGHTH GRADE 
Chapter Eleven 

I. The School Paper ...... 

II. Sentences Classified as to Form 

Chapter Twelve 

I. A Civics Club. 

II. The Compound Sentence .... 

Chapter Thirteen 

I. A “Know Your State” Campaign . 

II. The Complex Sentence: Adjective Clause 
Chapter Fourteen 

I. A Thrift Campaign. 

II. The Complex Sentence: The Adverbial Clause 
Chapter Fifteen 

I. A Sales Campaign. 

II. The Complex Sentence: The Substantive Clause 
Chapter Sixteen 

I. A Travel Magazine. 

II. Analysis of the Sentence ..... 

Chapter Seventeen 

I. A Public Debate. 

II. Substantives. 

Chapter Eighteen 

I. Our Postal System . . . . 

II. Verba. 


. 90 

. 95 


. 98 

. 100 


. 105 

. 108 


. 113 
. 118 


. 126 
. 129 


. 136 

. 139 


146 

152 


160 

162 


170 

174 


179 

182 


202 

208 




CONTENTS 


xiii 

PAGE 

Chapter Nineteen 

I. Reporting Visits to Points of Interest . . . 221 
II. The Verb (Continued).224 

Chapter Twenty 

I. A Reading Club.229 

II. Independent Expressions and Appositives . . 233 

Index.241 








PROJECTS 


PART ONE. THE SEVENTH GRADE 

PAGB3 


I. Making a List of Interesting Theme 

Subjects . 4 

II. The Class Magazine. 20 

III. Getting Acquainted with the Library . 28 

IV. Dramatizing a Story for the Class Pro¬ 

gram or the Assembly Program . . 39 

V. A Writers’ Contest. 56 

VI. A Letter Ordering Something for Your 

Club. 67 

VII. A “Boost Your Club” Campaign . . 80 

VIII. Conducting a Health Campaign . . 91 

IX. Conducting a “Safety-First” Campaign . 98 

X. Conducting a Reading Club . . . 105 


PART TWO. THE EIGHTH GRADE 

XI. Holding a Writers’ Contest . . . 115 

XII. Forming a Civics Club .... 126 

XIII. Conducting a “Know Your State” Cam¬ 

paign . 136 

XIV. Conducting a Thrift Campaign . . . 146 

XV. Conducting a Sales Campaign . . . 160 

XVI. Making a Travel Magazine . . . 170 

XVII. Holding a Public Debate .... 179 




xvi PROJECTS 

XVIII. Our Postal System and How It Aids the 

Public. 

XIX. Visiting a Factory or Museum . 

XX. Conducting a Reading Club 


PAGE 

202 

221 

229 



PART ONE 

ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 




JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


CHAPTER ONE 

I. INTERESTING MATERIAL FOR 
SPEAKING AND WRITING 

You are about to begin the study of speaking 
and writing English. At first you are likely to think 
that it will be dry and uninteresting. You may 
even be puzzled to know just how to begin. What 
subjects shall I select? What shall I say? What 
shall I write ? — These questions no doubt stagger 
the mind, but you will find interesting material and 
subjects. You will examine your own experience 
and try to recall its most interesting parts. What 
you have done, what you have seen, what you have 
heard — in fact all that you have taken in through 
the senses makes up your experience. You have 
had a vacation with many pleasant days. Could 
you tell of the most interesting day and what made 
it so? You have had an outing that has been 
denied to some of your classmates. Write to them 
about it. You will enjoy telling about it, and they 
will be glad to hear your story. No doubt you are 
thinking of pleasant or unusual happenings in con¬ 
nection with recreation — games, drills, hikes, and 
the like. Tell about them. You are interested in 


4 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


the social life of your community — the school, the 
church, the club, the Boy Scouts, the Camp Fire 
Girls, and various other organizations. Can you 
not think of dozens of subjects in connection with 
them? Then, too, from self-interest you must be 
thinking about the vocations. What are you going 
to be when you grow up? You will need to visit 
shops, factories, stores, and offices, and you will need 
to interview business and professional men before 
you decide. In these visits and interviews is the 
material for many an interesting theme. Can you 
not think of many an interesting title now ? 


Project I. Making a List of Interesting 
Theme Subjects 

The best list of theme subjects is the one you 
make for yourself. You can find them, as you have 
seen, in your own experience and much of your 
community life. Make your own list of subjects. 
They will be new and interesting. 

The following is a list made by a class of St. Louis 
boys and girls. Read it over and determine whether 
you can do as well. Your subjects will, of course, 
be different, because you live in a different locality 
and do many different things : 


1. A day at Long’s Gulch 

2. A trip over the Columbia 

Highway 

3. A swim at the Highlands 

4. Kicked by a mule 

5. A day at Pike’s Peak 

6. My trip to Missouri Uni¬ 

versity 


7. Frog-hunting on the Mis¬ 

sissippi 

8. An excursion on the river 

9. A narrow escape 

10. My first visit to a country 

school 

11. Exploring a haunted 

house 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 5 


12. A camp on the Meramec 

13. A ’possum hunting trip 

14. An unusual automobile 

tour 

15. A tramp to the lighthouse 

16. A day at Niagara Falls 

17. A Thanksgiving breakfast 

in Forest Park 

18. The last evening in camp 

19. My first day in the Junior 

High School 

20. A trip to a factory 

21. A visit to our national 

capitol 

22. The largest fire I ever 

saw 

23. A trip to the Great Lakes 

Training Camp 

24. Seeing the Border (Mex¬ 

ican) 

25. A visit to the Custom¬ 

house 

26. Through the Rockies 

27. A country picnic 

28. A day at Valley Park 

29. How a horse was rescued 


30. Around the camp fire 

31. From Detroit to Toledo 

by steamer 

32. A day at Coney Island 

33. A “hike” in the country 

34. A “hike” with the Camp 

Fire girls 

35. A rainy-day picnic 

36. A Hallowe’en party 

37. Fourth of July in a country 

town 

38. A trip to the Officers’ 

Training Camp at Fort 
Riley 

39. What I saw at Cliff Cave 

40. Motoring from St. Louis 

to St. Paul 

41. A lesson in horseback rid¬ 

ing 

42. What I saw when I visited 

the Federal Court 

43. Hunting arrow-heads in 

Missouri 

44. A Soldan-Central football 

game 


Narrowing the Subject. It frequently happens 
that the subject is too indefinite for a short theme. 
Such a subject is Camping or My Vacation. You 
could probably write many pages on either of them, 
or you might be puzzled to know just what to say. 
You will need to take a point of view with reference 
to such a subject and write about a single phase of 
it. Let us see how we may narrow it and arrive at 
a suitable title. 


6 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


Subject: Camping 
Topic: What a delightful time 
I had in camp on the Mera- 
mec 

Title: A day in camp on the 
Meramec 


Subject: Horseback riding 
Topic: How I learned to ride 
a vicious horse 

Title: A remarkable lesson in 
horseback riding 


A title should be brief and attractive. It should 
generally arouse curiosity, but should not give away 
the point of the story. Study the titles of articles 
and stories in newspapers and magazines. 

Narrow the following subjects till you arrive at 
a suitable title: 


1. Motoring 4. Football 

2. Fishing 5. Hunting 

3. Vacation 

Writing the Title. The title of a theme should 
be written about two inches from the top of the page, 
and an equal amount of space should be left on 
either side. The first word and all important words 
should be capitalized. Prepositions, conjunctions, 
and the articles a, an, and the are written with 
small letters. 

Compare your list of titles with those in the maga¬ 
zines. Try to improve them. 

Subjects Based on Civics, Occupations, and 
Commercial Work. The study of elements of in¬ 
terest in civics, the occupations, and commercial 
work will afford many interesting subjects for oral 
and written themes. We need not look far to find 
material that will appeal to us. 


1. Topics suggested by civics : 

(1) How I can help my school 

(2) How I can make health conditions better in my 

community 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 7 


(3) We need more playgrounds. What can I do about 

it? 

(4) How I spent the day in the tenement district 

(5) What one man did to help the people of the slums 

(6) Tell some one of the advantages of your city. (Per¬ 

suade him to move to your city.) 

(7) How taxes are levied and collected 

(8) A policeman’s duties 

(9) What I can do to make my city more beautiful 

(10) Safety First: How may we help to educate the 

public for greater safety? 

2. Topics suggested by the occupations: 

(1) A visit to a glass factory 

(2) A visit to a power plant 

(3) Why I wish to be an electrician 

(4) What I saw in a large department store 

(5) Why I want to be a merchant 

(6) A day in a hospital 

(7) A trip to a medical college 

(8) Why I should like to be a physician 

(9) Attending a session of court 

(10) Why I should like to be an employee of a railway 

company 

(11) Our railways 

(12) Why I should like to be a lawyer 

(13) A teacher whom I admire 

(14) Why I wish to become a teacher 

(15) Our minister’s duties 

3. Subjects suggested by commercial work: 

(1) Why I like to trade at-store 

(2) A discourteous salesman 

(3) Doing an honest day’s work 

(4) Learning all about my employer’s business 

(5) An interview with a business man 

(6) Driving a bargain 

(7) How I earned my first money 

(8) A roadside fruit stand 

(9) Trying to please the manager 


8 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


Interesting Subjects for Imaginative Writing. 

Although experience is the source of the material 
for most of our writing, the imagination also fur¬ 
nishes much. The imagination re-combines our 
experience into new wholes. It does not present 
what really is, but what might be. When we at¬ 
tempt to write from imaginative sources, we should 
therefore be careful to say nothing that will seem 
improbable and impossible. Of course fairy stories 
are improbable and impossible, but they do not 
pretend to be otherwise. 

The following titles are suitable for imaginative 
writing. How many can you add to the list ? 

1. An imaginary visit to the trenches in Europe 

2. An imaginary journey to some foreign country 

3. A second Robinson Crusoe 

4. If Ichabod Crane were my teacher 

5. An ideal football hero 

6. How I expect to become a millionaire 

7. A conversation with Tom Brown 

8. A trip to Venice in the time of Shylock 

9. School in 1950 

Organizing the Class. Much interesting practice 
in speaking from real motives comes from organizing 
the class and from the work of the class organiza¬ 
tion. When it is decided to effect an organization, 
a temporary chairman and a secretary should be 
elected. Any one who is interested may take charge 
and conduct the meeting until this is accomplished. 
Then the chairman may appoint a committee to 
draw up a set of rules or a constitution for the govern¬ 
ment of the class. These are read to the class, 
corrected by the class, and then adopted. The 
constitution will state the purpose of the organi- 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 9 


zation and will name the offices to be filled. It 
should also provide a name in keeping with the pur¬ 
poses which led to the organization. It should make 
use of parliamentary rules, so that order and fair 
play may be maintained. Your teacher will ex¬ 
plain the more useful of these rules to you from day 
to day. 

The president of the class, who is elected as soon 
as the constitution is adopted, will appoint a program 
committee. The committee will make a program 
assigning pupils to do certain work. 

The class organization may discuss the topic, 
What can I do to help my school ? 

The president of the class should also appoint vari¬ 
ous activities committees as the need for them arises. 
The first member appointed will be chairman of 
his committee. Judges of speech errors should also 
be appointed or elected. 

Talk to the Class. Be prepared to talk to the 
class on the following questions: 

1. What is the most desirable name for the class organization? 

2. What should be the purpose of the organization ? 

Planning the Work. The president of the class 
should appoint a chairman to investigate and re¬ 
port on each of the following topics, and he will 
select the members of his committees: 

1. Subjects based on experience 

2. Subjects suggested by civics 

3. Subjects suggested by the vocations 

4. Imaginative subjects 

The chairmen should instruct their committees to 
prepare a list of subjects after consulting books and 


10 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


magazines and after having talked the matter over 
with their parents and friends. Decide on a time 
for the reports of the chairmen. 

Conversation. How should a notebook be kept? 
What should be put in it? How should it be ar¬ 
ranged ? 

Reports of Committees. With the class as a 
club, each chairman of a committee should read his 
list of subjects and comment on them whenever 
necessary. The president will ask the class to dis¬ 
cuss the subjects. When there is doubt as to the 
value of any subject, they should vote to accept or 
reject it. Finally, the class should vote on the list 
as a whole. 

Written Work. Carefully write the entire list of 
subjects in your notebook for future reference. Be 
careful to arrange each group under the headings 
already used in committee assignments. Leave 
some space for additions to your list. 

Narrowing General Subjects. The following sub¬ 
jects are entirely too general. Put in your note¬ 
books the steps by which you arrive at a suitable 
title: 


1. Motoring 3. Vacation 5. Hunting 

2. Fishing 4. Football 6. Playing 

Talk to the Class. Choose one of the titles from 
your permanent list and prepare a talk for the class. 
The president will preside. When he calls on you, 
rise and say, “Mr. Chairman, I wish to tell the class 
about an interesting incident.” There should be 
two judges of correct English appointed to report 
on errors at the close of the exercise. 

Written English. Choose one of the subjects 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 11 


suitable for imaginative writing and write a theme. 
If time permits, some of the themes should be read 
to the class. 

II. SENTENCE-MAKING 

Think of the name of some person or thing. State 
or ask something about the person or thing. 

1. The farmer works. 

2. Does the farmer work? 

The foregoing expressions are sentences. All 
sentences are made by selecting a subject, and then 
by adding words that say something about the sub¬ 
ject. A sentence is the expression of a thought in 
words. 

The word that names something about which we 
make an assertion is called a noun. Certain words, 
called pronouns, may be used instead of nouns. 

1. John works in the office. 

2. He works in the office. 

The word that names the person or thing about 
which an assertion is made is called the subject of 
the sentence. The word or group of words that as¬ 
serts something of the subject is called the predicate. 

Find the words that say something about the sub¬ 
ject in the following sentences : 

1. George plays ball. 

2. Arthur drove the horses. 

3. The dogs chased the fox. 

4. The house was destroyed. 

The words plays, drove, chased, and was destroyed 
assert something about the subject. A word that 
asserts is a verb. 


12 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


Not every group of words is a sentence. Some 
groups merely assume. To assume means to take 
for granted. 

The brook running through the field. 

The expression above is not a sentence, because 
there is no word that asserts. Running merely 
assumes and tells the kind of brook. It may be 
made a sentence, however, by using a word that 
asserts. 


The brook runs through the field. 


Exercise 1 

Which of the following are sentences? Find the 
expressions that are not sentences and change them 
to the form of sentences. 

1. The dog took hold of the boy’s slipper. 

2. A little curly-headed boy, followed by a huge St. Bernard 

dog. 

3. After breakfast we put our rooms in order. 

4. At last, to the joy of everyone, dinner was announced. 

5. After our journey which required two hours’ time. 

6. In the middle of the lake we passed a very large lighthouse. 

7. We could see nothing at night but the moon. 

8. The flag floating over the fort. 

9. After we had finished the game. 

10. Every one of us enjoyed the trip. 

11. My sister and I spent the day in Forest Park. 

12. The child crying for its mother. 

13. Through the long nights of December. 

14. It was late in July when we started for Cleveland. 

15. During my vacation I spent two weeks in camp on the 

Meramec. 

16. We spent the next day in playing tennis and swimming. 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 13 


17. Although it was cool and cloudy. 

18. Father told me to find some wood for the fire. 

19. One Sunday in July we left in an automobile for Spanish 

Lake. 

20. Virginia spent a week with the Camp Fire Girls in camp on 

the Meramec. 

21. There were many automobiles standing in the grove. 

22. After a meal very hastily prepared. 

23. Everybody went to his own tent. 

24. The pegs that held the tent were driven down farther. 

25. A boy seldom forgets a camping trip. 

Kinds of Sentence. Observe the following sen¬ 
tences and note any differences in them: 

1. In winter wild geese fly to the south. 

2. Has the snow melted? 

The first sentence states, or declares, a fact; the 
second asks a question. These are types of the two 
leading kinds of the sentence — namely, the de¬ 
clarative and the interrogative. 

A declarative sentence is one that states a fact or 
expresses the will or wish of the speaker. 

1. The birds flew to the trees. (Fact) 

2. Bring me the book. (Will) 

3. May success attend your efforts. (Wish) 

An interrogative sentence is one that asks a question. 

1. Who has done this deed ? 

2. What did the child do? 

3. How old are you? 

Exclamatory and Non-exclamatory Sentences. 

Every sentence is either exclamatory or non-ex- 
clamatory. If it expresses sudden or strong feel¬ 
ing, it is called an exclamatory sentence. All sen-* 


14 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


tences that are not exclamatory should be classed 
as non-exclamatory. 

An exclamatory sentence may take the form of a 
statement or question. 

1. You are a thief! (Statement) 

2. What do we care for a lunch! (Question) 

3. Leave my house! (Statement of the speaker’s will) 


Exercise 2 

Classify each sentence as declarative or interroga¬ 
tive, exclamatory or non-exclamatory: 

1. The boys gave a minstrel show. 

2. How the children did enjoy their day’s outing! 

3. A week later my brother and I went to the Orphans’ Home 

to live. 

4. When was Virginia settled? 

5. Do not waste your time. 

6. As we were near the Mississippi River, we saw many fisher¬ 

men’s tents. 

7. John looked at his watch and was surprised to find that it 

was twelve o’clock. 

8. Did you not notice the great change in temperature near the 

lake? 

9. Have you a savings account? 

10. Oh! I would rather part with my ring! 

11. The journey was long and difficult. 

12. It took us a good hour to reach the cave. 

13. Give every one a chance. 

14. At noon John and I ate a very refreshing lunch. 

Writing the Sentence. Every sentence should 
begin with a capital letter. 

A declarative sentence should be followed by a 
period. 

1. James bought a new book. 

2. Leave your hat here. 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 15 

An interrogative sentence should be followed by 
an interrogation point. 

1. How old are you? 

2. When did Washington die? 

An exclamatory sentence should be followed by 
an exclamation point. Sometimes the depth of the 
feeling centers in a certain word. In this case the 
particular word should be followed by the mark. 

1. How nobly he acted! 

2. Alas! We shall see him no more. 

3. Hurrah! Hurrah! Our team has won! 


Exercise 3 

The following is a pupil’s theme entitled A Climb 
up Pilot Knob. Periods, question marks, and ex¬ 
clamation points have purposely been omitted. 
Copy it and put after each sentence the mark that 
should be used. 

“ Are you ready If so, put on your stoutest pair 
of shoes, for we are going to climb up Pilot Knob 
We will follow the old tramway down which cars of 
ore were transported when the iron mines were in 
operation We are now at the Cave of the Winds 
Do you not notice the great change in temperature 
when you come close to it Oh, the air is so cold that 
I wish I had a coat Come, let us continue our 
climb Here it is very steep Do be careful that you 
do not make a misstep, for it would send you down 
a drop of a hundred feet or more We have at last 
reached the summit and are rewarded with a mag¬ 
nificent scene that spreads out before us Here in 


16 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


every direction are the hills in steady succession 
There, nestled in the valley, lies a little village And 
so on every hand we are surrounded by these 
natural beauties We descend at last, tired but 
thoroughly appreciative of our trip” — L. S. 


Exercise 4 

Write a short theme like the one in Exercise 3. 
Select a subject that will be suggested by an out¬ 
ing, a vacation, or some interesting phase of your 
experience. 


CHAPTER TWO 


I. SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY MOTIVES 
FOR COMPOSITION 

Up to this time you have been working to find 
interesting subjects and material for themes. Now 
you are to learn that you should always have a pur¬ 
pose in mind or a motive for each oral and written 
theme. Indeed it is quite as necessary to have a 
purpose as a title. You will be asked to look again 
into school and community interests for such pur¬ 
poses or motives. Here you may find a reason for 
each piece of written or oral work. When you write 
a theme for the school paper, you have a definite pur¬ 
pose. You must also adapt the article to the needs 
of the paper. When you write to tell how you can 
help your school, you have a real motive, a civic 
motive. When you write a letter to a classmate who 
is absent on account of sickness or to one who is 
away on a vacation, you have a real reason for do¬ 
ing the particular piece of work. You may belong 
to a club or society. Write its minutes, or write 
an account of something that has happened in con¬ 
nection with its work. These few examples of the 
way that you may obtain motives will serve to make 
clear our point. 

Projects for School and Community Motives. 

Interesting projects may be drawn from the follow- 


18 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


ing to motivate almost every type of your English 
work: 


1. School activities 

2. Pupil government 

3. The motion-picture drama 

4. Needs of the school 

5. The school paper 

School Activities. The term school activities 
refers to all literary, athletic, and social clubs. 
Some of our largest high schools have a great vari¬ 
ety of them. We have in mind one such school 
that has besides its regular literary and athletic 
clubs a German club, a French club, a college club, 
a chess club, a stamp club, a glee club, a mandolin 
club, and a botany club. If you do not have your 
literary societies, it is well to set about organizing 
them. They offer opportunities for speaking and 
writing. The various athletic clubs — football, base¬ 
ball, basketball, and track organizations — offer 
many interesting experiences suitable for oral and 
written themes. 

Many suitable projects may easily be derived — 
for example, Organizing our club or Preparing a 
program for our society. These serve to motivate 
your English work. 

Pupil Government. Your school may be gov¬ 
erned wholly or in part by the pupils themselves. 
A student council may be formed before which 
matters of discipline and school welfare may be 
discussed. In each classroom an organization can 
be effected to take care of the order and thus re¬ 
lieve the teacher. It is not our purpose here to 
work out the details, but merely to call attention to 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 19 


the possibilities of pupil government for real motives 
for oral and written themes. 

Suppose, for example, you should choose for your 
project Making a campaign for pupil government. 
Here is material for a debate on the question: 
Resolved that our school should adopt pupil govern¬ 
ment. Then naturally the whole problem of school 
citizenship arises, and you find topics for numerous 
talks and written exercises — thus : 

1. How we may prevent cheating in examinations 

2. What is courteous conduct in the classroom? 

3. How to secure good order during the lunch period 

4. Honest recitation work 

5. Why pupils should not copy themes 

The Motion-picture Drama. No other form of 
entertainment seems quite so popular as the “mov¬ 
ies.” How many motion-picture theaters has your 
community or city? Which of these do you like 
best? Why? You are interested in certain kinds 
of photo-plays. Can you tell just why? 

A popular actor or actress is commonly called a 
“movie star.” You are no doubt acquainted with 
the work of some of them. Find out all you can 
about them and their salaries. 

You may prefer to have your project take a dif¬ 
ferent direction — for example: The motion-pic¬ 
ture drama — how may motion pictures he made 
helpful to the community ? If this project is chosen, 
you should plan a study of every phase of the sub¬ 
ject through the different committees of your class. 

The School Paper. Your school may decide to 
print a paper to be issued once every month. The 
following plan is merely suggestive: Every group 


20 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


may elect two reporters, and the reporters from all 
the different groups may then meet and elect a 
business manager and editor-in-chief. After the 
different departments have been agreed upon, the 
board of reporters may elect the department edi¬ 
tors. The departments should include editorials, 
school news, society notes, athletics, club meetings, 
jokes, and cartoons. 

The publication of the school paper will be the 
chief project in the English work of the entire 
school year. You will find it interesting to write 
articles to appear in it — such as stories, poems, 
jokes, reports of assembly programs, athletic events, 
and expressions of your opinions on topics of school 
welfare (editorials). Your class may be asked to 
prepare a page or to submit the material for an entire 
department — for example, the literary department. 

Each class may prepare a magazine of its own to 
be read to the class during one period of each week. 
It may be written by hand, or typed by the com¬ 
mercial pupils. Every effort should be made to 
make the material interesting and profitable, for 
the best articles can then be passed on to the school 
paper. 


Project II. The Class Magazine 

Conversation. How many have seen a school 
paper or a class magazine ? If possible, bring a copy 
to class. Why should we make a class magazine? 
How often should it be published? What interest¬ 
ing things could we include in it ? 

Talk to the Class. Resolved, that we should have 
a class paper. With the class as a club and the 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 21 


president presiding, state your opinion on this ques¬ 
tion. If you prefer, you may make a list of the 
facts, or points, you wish to present. This you 
may call your outline. 

Planning the Magazine. At a business meeting 
of your class, work out a definite plan for carrying 
out the project. Elect your editor and his assist¬ 
ants. Decide upon the departments you wish to 
have. Perhaps you will prefer to follow in a general 
way the plan suggested above. 

Written English. Select one of the subjects in 
your permanent list, or some other one of equal in¬ 
terest, and write a story for the class magazine. 
When you have it properly prepared, submit it to 
the particular department to which it belongs. 

Talk to the Class. Give the class an account of 
what took place at an interesting meeting of your 
club. Prepare a written report for the class maga¬ 
zine. 

Written English. Write a report of a game or 
other athletic contest, an assembly program, or an 
interesting project in science or practical arts. If 
you prefer, write an interesting news article that 
is, an account of something interesting that hap- 
pened. 

Class Program. The president of the class should 
appoint a committee to arrange a program. . It 
may consist of the reading of the class magazine, 
talks by the editors, music, etc. 

II. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 

You have seen that the subject of a sentence is a 
noun or a pronoun. To this class of words 


22 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


nouns, pronouns, and words so used — we may- 
give the name substantive. Every sentence must 
contain at least one substantive, expressed or un¬ 
derstood, and a verb. 

A subject consisting of one substantive is a sim¬ 
ple subject. 

Henry caught the ball. 

A subject consisting of two or more substantives 
is a compound subject. 

Henry and William played ball. 

A predicate consisting of one verb is a simple 
predicate. 

William sang a song. 

A predicate consisting of more than one verb is a 
compound predicate. 

William sang and played. 

Both subject and predicate may be compound. 

John and Henry ran and played in the field. 

Complete Subject and Complete Predicate. In al¬ 
most every sentence more words are employed than 
mere substantive and verb. Certain other words, to 
be discussed later, help, or modify, the subject or 
the predicate. The subject substantive and the 
words that belong to it make up the complete sub¬ 
ject. The predicate verb and the words that be¬ 
long to it make up the complete predicate. In the 
following illustrations a vertical line is drawn be¬ 
tween the complete subject and the complete pred¬ 
icate. 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 23 


1. The round seed pods of the morning glory | burst open in 

due time. 

2. Europe’s small farms | must be intensively cultivated. 

3. South America, with her small population, I has raw products 

to spare for European markets. 

Exercise 1 

Find the complete subject and the complete pred¬ 
icate of each sentence: 

1. Complaints against doubly taxing professional men are 

growing in volume. 

2. The family living next door to us has an automobile. 

3. During the past summer I had the pleasure of visiting the 

Young Men’s Christian Association camp in the Ozark 
Mountains. 

4. At night we had a camp-fire program. 

5. The soldiers of the American Revolution fought with great 

courage. 

6. Our Scout Master told us not to make any noise. 

7. The boys who went to the lake took pictures of the tents on 

the shore. 

8. In the nest were six blue eggs. 

9. The good citizen will strive to learn more about his com¬ 

munity. 

10. The Boy Scouts fished till five o’clock and caught about 

thirty catfish. 

11. One day last summer when we were spending a few weeks 

on a small island in Green Bay, we were invited to take a 
trip to a lighthouse. 

12. John and his friend failed to pass an examination in history. 

13. The keeper of the lighthouse took his visitors up into the 

tower. 

14. Did not the papers tell of British soldiers slaughtered like 

sheep? 

15. The old Van Bibber Hotel in Mineola was often visited by 

Daniel Boone in the earlier days of our history. 

The Skeleton of the Sentence. The substantive 
without its modifiers is called the subject substantive, 


24 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


and the verb without its modifiers is called the 
predicate verb . 

The root of the plant has medicinal value. 

The subject substantive and the predicate verb 
make up the skeleton of the sentence. Every sen¬ 
tence has a skeleton. If you are puzzled to know 
whether a group of words is a sentence, test it by 
selecting its skeleton. 

In questions the subject follows the verb. 

1. How did the accident occur? 

Skeleton: accident did occur. 

2. Are you going to the game? 

Skeleton: you are going. 

Statements often begin with the introductory 
word there. In such cases also the subject follows 
the verb. 

1. There were many homesick boys in camp. 

Skeleton: boys were. 

2. There was a day of reckoning. 

Skeleton: day was. 

In poetry and sometimes in prose the subject 
may follow the verb. 

1. Pure was thy life. 

Skeleton: life was. 

2. Down sank the Titanic beneath the waves. 

Skeleton: Titanic sank. 

Exercise 2 

Find the subject substantive and the predicate 
in each sentence. Write the skeleton. 

1. One Saturday in April ten girls and I went on a hike to the 

country. 

2. There are many interesting places near St. Louis. 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 25 


3. When was Lincoln born? 

4. There ensued a dangerous riot. 

5. Then came a pause. 

6. A boy kept after school does not like his teacher. 

7. The rest of the day passed without anything of interest. 

8. Obviously there are two ways of putting color on the screen. 

9. Is there no hope at all for peace ? 

10. The study of community civics enlightens pupils about 
civic questions. 


Verb Phrases. Often a verb consists of more 
than one word, but such phrases do the work of a 
single word. Observe the following examples: 


is made 
are made 
was made 
were made 
has made 
have made 
had made 


has been made 
have been made 
will make 
will be made 
shall make 
shall have been made 
will have been made 


The parts of the verb phrase are sometimes widely 
separated. 

1. Have you ever seen a wireless telegraph station? 

Skeleton: you have seen. 

2. The people could no longer bear their ruler’s tyranny. 
Skeleton: people could bear. 

3. The officers were, however, very severely criticized by the 

soldiers. 

Skeleton: officers were criticized. 

4. Nothing has yet been done to help the unfortunate stranger. 
Skeleton: nothing has been done. 


Exercise 3 

Write the skeleton of each of the following sen¬ 
tences : 

1. Washington Irving has been called the Father of American 

literature. 

2. A prize was given to the best speller. 


26 JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 

3. Many Russian prisoners were severely punished by German 

officers. 

4. The general did not seem to care for human life. 

5. The man was afterwards taken away and placed in a filthy 

cell of the prison. 

6. The Boy Scouts have been trained to honor the flag. 

7. Did the war make all mankind nobler and kinder? 

8. Apples for storing should be solid fruit. 

9. The frog, owing to its peculiar structure, cannot breathe with 

its mouth open. 

10. The raven has been found in every country. 

11. Here was once fought a great battle. 

12. Lincoln had, by a few strokes of his pen, freed the slave. 

13. Castor gloves should be made of beaver. 

14. In the Torrid Zone some of the lower animals closely re¬ 

semble man. 

15. The deer is furnished with supplementary breathing-places 

in addition to the nostrils. 


CHAPTER THREE 


I. GATHERING INTERESTING MATERIAL 
FROM LANGUAGE 

Much helpful material for themes both oral and 
written may be obtained from conversation and 
books. Books are a veritable storehouse of infor¬ 
mation. It is, therefore, important that we learn 
first how to find a book and, second, how to use 
its index and table of contents. What reference 
books can you name? Which have you used? 

Reference Books. In every library a number 
of reference books can be found in the reading-room. 
Such books include dictionaries, encyclopedias, 
works of biography, history, and geography. Books 
of synonyms may also be provided, as well as 
atlases. 

Magazines and Periodicals. Much valuable 
material for oral and written themes can be obtained 
from magazines and periodicals. Some magazines 
are devoted almost wholly to the short story, the 
serial story, and the special article. Some are de¬ 
voted to science and some to the trades and profes¬ 
sions. Many are devoted to civic interests. The 
last named group includes such magazines as The 
American City , The Literary Digest , The Survey , and 
The World's Work . 


28 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


Newspapers. Newspapers and magazines enable 
you to keep up with the times. The newspaper 
has come to be indispensable to the home. It con¬ 
tains material selected because it is interesting. 
You should therefore go to it for much of your 
material for composition. The news article and the 
editorial furnish excellent models for speaking and 
writing. Many timely topics in civics are treated 
from day to day. You can ill afford to overlook 
this fruitful source of interesting material for oral 
composition. What daily newspapers do you take? 
What other newspapers would you like to take? 

Project III. Getting Acquainted 
with the Library 

In your study of interesting projects in English, 
you will need to go to books and magazines for help 
again and again. It is therefore important in the 
beginning that you should find out what books are 
available for reference work and what they con¬ 
tain. Your project, then, will be Getting Acquainted 
with the Library. 

Visiting the Library. Make a visit to the library 
and answer the following questions: What diction¬ 
aries do you find? What kinds of information do 
they furnish? What encyclopedias do you find? 
What kinds of information do they contain? How 
large are sets and what is the price of them ? What 
works of biography are available? What works on 
synonyms do you find? Make a list of the diction¬ 
aries, encyclopedias, histories, works of biography, 
and atlases. 

Talk to the Class. Tell the class what you have 
learned about reference books. If you prefer, select 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 29 


a word whose meaning you do not know and look 
it up in the dictionary. Tell the class all the dif¬ 
ferent facts you have learned about it. 

A Second Visit to the Library. Visit the reading- 
room of the library and make a list of magazines and 
journals under the following headings: (1) story 
magazines, (2) magazines devoted to civics and 
public opinion, (3) those devoted to the trades and 
professions, (4) those devoted to science, (5) boys’ 
magazines, (6) women’s magazines, and (7) re¬ 
views. If possible, find out the name of the editor 
of each and the price of the magazine. 

Talk to the Class. Tell the class the name of your 
favorite magazine and all the interesting facts about 
it that you have learned. Try to make everyone 
want to subscribe. 

Making a List of Newspapers. Make a list of 
the daily newspapers in your community. Then 
make a list of five great national daily newspapers 
and be able to tell orally what you know of each. 

Talk to the Class. After consulting with some one 
who knows the history of your own local newspapers, 
or after reading about them, tell the class the history 
of one of the daily papers. 

Written Work. Put in your notebook a list of 
publications available for use in the library. Ar¬ 
range them under the following headings : (1) refer¬ 
ence books, (2) magazines and periodicals, and 
(3) newspapers. 

II. THE LINKING VERB 

In the following sentences, to what does the word 
happy belong? generous? lawyer? 


30 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


1. The child is happy. 

2. Henry seems generous. 

3. Mr. Tilden became a lawyer. 

In the first sentence happy describes child, and 
in the second generous describes Henry. Each be¬ 
longs to the subject and is linked to it by the verb. 
The verb is links happy to child and seems links gen¬ 
erous to Henry. In the third sentence lawyer refers 
to Tilden and means the same person. The verb 
became links lawyer to Tilden and asserts that they 
are the same person. 

A verb that joins the subject to that which is 
asserted of the subject is a linking verb. 

The most common linking verb is be and all its 
forms. Other verbs often used as linking verbs 
are become, look, appear, and seem. 

1. The trees are tall. 

2. The boy became sl physician. 

3. The building looks interesting. 

4. The orator appeared self-conscious. 

5. Mary seems quite contented. 

Another group that may be used as linking verbs 
includes taste, smell, feel, and the like. 

1. The orange tasted sour. 

2. The rose smells sweet. 

3. The object felt rough. 

A linking verb is followed by an adjective or a 
substantive. An adjective is a word that describes 
or limits a noun or pronoun. When an adjective 
is joined to the subject by a linking verb it is called 
a predicate adjective. In the sentences stated above 
sweet, sour, and rough are predicate adjectives. You 
will hear more of adjectives under the subject of modi¬ 
fiers. 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 31 

A noun that is joined to the subject by a linking 
verb is called a predicate noun. As the subject sub¬ 
stantive is often called a subject nominative, the 
predicate noun may be called a predicate nominative. 

The mayor is a clever politician. 


Exercise 1 

Select the linking verbs. Name the predicate 
adjectives and the predicate nouns. To what does 
each refer? 


1. The story was interesting. 

2. General Pershing was the 

leader of our armies in 
France. 

3. You and your friends will 

be welcome at these 
recitals. 

4. The situation became 

grave. 

5. Brown is an excellent 

plumber. 

6. The wages of sin is death. 

7. Prices will be higher dur¬ 

ing the winter. 

8. The lemon tasted very 

sour. 

9. The cloth felt soft and 

smooth. 

10. Is he a clever actor ? 


11. The owl looks wise. 

12. After the war all nations 

were much wiser. 

13. All the world is a stage. 

14. No other course seems 

advisable. 

15. How good you are! 

16. The president is the leader 

of the organization. 

17. His voice seemed very 

musical. 

18. Waterloo is a famous 

battlefield. 

19. Our country has become a 

world power. 

20. The man became very 

angry. 


Analysis. A simple form of analysis will reveal 
the structure of the sentence. Notice carefully 
the treatment of the following sentence: 

“The larger man is the physician.’’ 

This is a declarative sentence. The complete 
subject is “ The larger man”, and “ man ” is the 


32 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


subject substantive. The complete predicate is 
“is the physician”, of which “is” is the linking verb 
and “physician” is the predicate noun. 


Exercise 2 

Analyze the following sentences: 


1. Jefferson was a popular 

president. 

2. Lincoln became an ex¬ 

cellent orator. 

3. A good citizen will always 

be patriotic. 

4. The poor little boy seemed 

much discouraged. 

5. The city was unusually 

beautiful. 


6. Africa is a very large 

continent. 

7. Franklin was a printer. 

8. Wells is a noted novelist. 

9. The surface seemed 

smooth. 

10. A governor is a public 

QOT*T7Q n t 

11. The child looked ill. 

12. The story has been a 

great favorite. 


Exercise 3 

Write five sentences containing predicate ad¬ 
jectives. 

Write five sentences containing predicate nouns. 


CHAPTER FOUR 


I. DRAMATIZATION 

Perhaps you have already been asked to dramatize 
interesting stories from your reading and will enjoy 
further work of this kind. Whenever you take up 
a selection that can be told by means of dialogue 
and action, ask your teacher for her permission to 
change it to the form of a play. If the whole story 
or poem cannot be so treated, there may be one or 
more of the scenes that can be used. 

When you dramatize a story, you make use of 
dialogue. You set down the name of the character, 
in small capitals when printed, and his speech follows 
it. Stage directions are inclosed in parentheses, 
usually following the name of the character. Each 
speech is a separate division. The play may con¬ 
sist of but one act or scene, depending upon the 
length of the story. In longer plays, however, there 
may be several acts and scenes. The setting is the 
time and place of the action. These are generally 
indicated at the beginning of acts and scenes. The 
characters, or persons taking part, are called the 
dramatis personce. 

A class in the Blewett Junior High School, of 
St. Louis, recently dramatized “ Rip Van Winkle.” 
It will be interesting to know just how they did the 
work. The story was, of course, first studied and 


34 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


read in class. The children then asked to present 
it as a play, and upon this suggestion the teacher 
set them to work studying the form of simple drama. 

Several short plays consisting of a single act were 
written. After this the story of Rip Van Winkle 
was taken up, act by act. The attempts of the chil¬ 
dren were read in class. After receiving class criti¬ 
cism, the children revised them. Following a sec¬ 
ond reading, they chose acts or parts of acts to be 
given before them as an audience. A committee 
was chosen to gather and combine all suggestions 
in the respective acts. This committee then re¬ 
ferred their work to the class for approval. In 
the beginning the pupils were told that if they suc¬ 
ceeded with the play, they might present it before 
other classes or on the stage at the weekly assembly 
of the grade. When the work was finished, pupils 
were chosen to represent the various characters. 
Later the play was given at an auditorium session 
and greatly delighted all who were present. 

In order that you may see what can be done in 
this kind of work, the play as dramatized by the class 
is given below: 

RIP VAN WINKLE 
Act I 


Time .1765 

Scene .Village of Running Water 

on the Hudson River 

Characters .Rip Van Winkle 

Dame Van Winkle 
Children 
Van Bummel 
Tavern-keeper 
Several men 





ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 35 


(Men at tavern table. Dame Van Winkle at the other side 
washing. Rip, with gun on shoulder, comes lazily down the road, 
turns and speaks to his dog. Children are playing marbles, 
tops, jumping the rope, and sailing ships.) 

Rip (entering the stage from the center, whistles): Get ye 
back, Wolf. If thy mistress sees thee, it’ll go hard with ye. 

Children : Oh, look, here comes Rip Van Winkle. (They 
jump and clap hands for joy.) Hurrah, hurrah, for old Rip! 
Come and play with us. (They drag him over; Rip plays with 
them.) 

(Rip tiptoes toward home.) 

Children (running to him, seize him): Oh, don’t go home. 
She has a rolling-pin ready. 

(Rip bows head and shakes it, walks thus toward the tavern. 
Some of the children follow anxiously, while others continue with 
marbles and tops.) 

One at Tavern: Oh, Rip, what do you think? George 
III is king of England. 

Van Bummel (reading newspaper, drawls): Well, would you 
look here; Indians lived in America before the white men came! 

All (leaning toward Van Bummel): Indians! (Rip rubs 
head.) 

Van Bummel: Yes, men with red skins. (Tavern keeper 
brings out tray with pipes on it and passes them.) 

Dame Van Winkle (muttering from house): If I get a hold 
of that worthless fellow, he’ll remember it. He never did a 
day’s work in his life. I’ll make him step lively when he gets 
home. I suppose he’s at the tavern again. (Rushes toward the 
tavern. Rip sees her coming, moves back chair, and raises hands 
in horror.) 

Dame Van Winkle: You lazy good-for-nothing fellow, 
here you are again wasting the whole day. You bring nothing 
but ruin upon your family. The farm’s going to wreck, fences 
down, weeds as thick as mud. Yet here you sit. Be on your 
way. (Rip staggers ahead, looks back, shakes head, turns 
quickly and leaves stage.) 

Dame Van Winkle (starts to leave, turns): And you, 
Nicholas Vedder, what right have you to teach my husband such 
tricks? And you, Brom Dutcher, you’d better be a-digging in 
your garden instead of letting your wife work. You encourage 
my husband again and see which way the wind blows. (She 


36 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


turns, looks around for Rip, stalks back home.) Well, of all 
things, gone to the mountains again, I suppose. 


Act II 

Time .Same as in Act I 

Scene .Catskill Mountains, Dwarf’s home 


Characters .... Rip Van Winkle 

Leader of the Dwarfs 

Dwarfs 

Fairies 

Rip (entering as though climbing a hill, collar turned up, 
pauses for breath): Wolf, Wolf, what ails thee? Thy mistress 
can’t harm thee here. (Raises hand to eyes, staggers.) My, 
what a flash that was! Old Hendrick Hudson’s lighting his pipe 
in the mountains to-night. (Balls roll for thunder.) He’s 
surely rolling his big balls to-night. 

Voice : Rip Van Winkle! Rip Van Winkle! (Stops.) 

Voice : (Repeats same.) 

Rip (looks surprised, points to some one in the distance): Why, 
what a funny thing is that a-coming up the hill? I thought no¬ 
body but me ever came this high. 

(Enter dwarf carrying a keg, beckons to Rip, who approaches 
hesitatingly. Dwarf motions Rip to set keg down for him. Rip 
does so. Dwarf moves forward, beckons Rip to follow and bring 
keg. Dwarfs behind scene roll balls. Rip pauses to look around 
and guide beckons him to climb forward. Rip and dwarf reach 
top and former puts down keg where bidden. Other dwarfs, 
balls in hand, gather round. Guide motions Rip to serve con¬ 
tents. He passes it around. Dwarfs place ten-pins on the stage. 
Drill. Rip tastes the liquor, sits down to watch, and gradually 
falls asleep. At end of the drill, dwarfs gather the material, 
point in ridicule to Rip, and run from the stage. Rip sleeps.) 

(Fairies enter, dance, and wake Rip.) 

Rip (beard having grown a great deal, moves uneasily. Fairies 
disappear after final wave of the wand. Rip sits up, stretches, 
and looks around vacantly): Where am I ? Won’t the mistress 
give it to me for staying here all night? (Trying to rise.) Oh, 
my elbow! (Tries again.) Oh, my side! (Holding it.) I must 
’a caught the rheumatis’ a-sleeping on the wet grass. (Manages 
to rise and, after several painful attempts, picks up gun, which 




ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 37 


falls apart.) Uh! that’s too bad; now the Dame will scold. 
(Turns and looks around amazed.) Why this place is more than 
twice the size it was last night. (Stops, looks.) Am I dreaming, 
or sleeping, or waking ? (Starts again.) I ’ll go home to my wife. 
She ’ll tell me if I’m asleep or not. (Goes limping.) 


Act III 

Time .Twenty years later, election time 

Scene .Same as in Act I 


Characters . . ... Rip Van Winkle 
Villagers 
Rip’s daughter 

(Tavern on right, with several politicians standing in front. 
On left a crowd of men talking incessantly among themselves. 
Two or three cross stage, giving the appearance of a busy street. 
Rip enters on left with ragged clothes, rough long beard, hair 
mussed, and an old rusty gun on his shoulder. Children laugh, 
make fun, and stroke their chins, making Rip aware of his long 
beard. Rip looks in vain for his tavern friends; everything is 
changed. He stops, eyes the crowd, and then is halted by a 
strange bustling old man.) 

Man (drawing him aside): On which side do you vote? 

Another Man (pulls him by the arm, rises on tiptoe, whis¬ 
pers) : Are you a Democrat or a Federalist? What brings you 
to the election with a gun on your shoulder and a mob at your 
heels ? Do you want to breed a riot in the village ? 

Rip (sticking out his arms): Alas, gentlemen, I am a poor 
quiet man, a native of the village and a loyal subject of the King, 
God bless him. (Shouts from the crowd : “A Tory, a Tory, a 
spy, a refugee. Away with him! ” People shout, raising closed 
fists.) 

Self-Important Man (calls for order, steps forward): What 
did you come here for ? Whom are you seeking ? 

Rip : I am in search of my neighbors who used to keep about 
the tavern. 

Self-Important Man : Well, who are they? Name some of 
them. 

Rip: Where’s Nicholas Vedder? 

Man : Oh, he’s dead and gone these eighteen years. There 
was a tombstone that used to tell about him, but that’s rotten 
and gone too. 




38 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


Rip : Where ’s Brom Dutcher? 

Woman : Oh, he went off to the army at the beginning of the 
war. Some say he was killed at Stony Point; others say he 
died of disease. I can’t tell — he never came back. 

Rip: Where’s Van Bummel, the schoolmaster? 

Man : Oh, he went off to the wars and is now in Congress. 
(Rip stands looking into vacant space, puts hand up to head 
turns it from side to side and sighs): Oh, what sad changes! 

Rip (after a few minutes’ silence): Does nobody here know 
Rip Van Winkle? 

People : To be sure. That’s Rip Van Winkle yonder, lean¬ 
ing against the tree. (Rip turns around, only to see a lazy, 
ragged-looking fellow in one corner. Shakes head and sighs.) 

Self-Important Man: Well, who are you? 

Rip : God knows. I’m not myself, I’m somebody else. No, 
I was myself last night when I went to sleep on the mountain. 
They’ve changed my gun, and everything is changed, I’m 
changed. I can’t tell what my name is or who I am. (Poli¬ 
ticians nod to one another and point fingers to their heads.) 

Woman (poorly dressed, passes through crowd, carrying a 
chubby child in her arms, to get a look at Rip. The child, 
frightened at Rip’s looks, begins to cry): Hush, Rip, hush. The 
old man won’t hurt you. 

Rip (straightening up and opening mouth and eyes): What 
is your name, my good woman? 

Woman: Judith Gardenier. 

Rip : And your father’s name? 

Woman : Oh, poor man, his name was Rip Van Winkle. It’s 
twenty years since he went away from home with his gun and has 
never been heard from since. But whether he shot himself or 
was carried away by the Indians, nobody can tell. I was then 
but a little girl. (Rip looks in amazement with mouth open 
wide, leaning half forward, nearly on his toes.) 

Rip : Where is your mother? 

Judith Gardenier: Oh, she also is dead. She burst a 
blood vessel in a fit of passion at a New England peddler. (Rip, 
very much excited, prances up and down, shaking head.) 

Rip : I am Rip Van Winkle. Young Rip Van Winkle once — 
old Rip Van Winkle now. Does nobody know Rip Van Winkle ? 
(Everyone stands amazed.) 

An Old Woman (tottering out of the crowd, puts hand to 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 39 


head, looks under it into his face): Sure enough, it is Rip Van 
Winkle. It is himself. Welcome home again, old neighbor. 
Why, where have you been these twenty long years ? Come and 
tell us your story. (She leads Rip to the tavern and the crowd 
gather about him.) 

THE END 

Project IV. Dramatizing a Story for the 

Class Program or the Assembly Program 

Planning the Work. Before attempting to drama¬ 
tize a story with more than one act and scene, it 
will be necessary to turn several short selections 
into dialogue for practice. In this exercise each one 
should work individually. When you take up a 
longer story, you may follow the plan already sug¬ 
gested or work out one of your own. 

Talk to the Class. Retell an interesting short 
story that you have read. Do not choose one that 
cannot easily be dramatized. The class should 
vote in order to determine which selections should 
be dramatized. 

Written English. Write the dialogue for the 
selections you have just made in the previous 
exercise. 

Choosing a Larger Project. Dramatize one of 
the following: 

1. The Legend of Sleepy Hollow 

2. The Pied Piper of Hamelin 

3. Hiawatha 

4. The King of the Golden River 

5. Scenes from the Lady of the Lake 

6. An interesting historical event. 

Or choose other interesting stories comprising 
more than one act and scene. 




40 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


Planning the Work. As far as possible, you should 
make your own plans for carrying out the work of 
the project and choose your committees. However, 
the following suggestions may be helpful. First, 
study the story carefully in class. Then decide 
upon the different acts and scenes that are to be 
presented. You will next work individually or in 
groups in preparing the dialogue. After the first 
attempts are finished, they should be read to the 
class and criticized. Make a note of all helpful 
criticisms and revise your work. After a second 
reading, a committee should be chosen to select 
the best work for each act. When the play is 
finished, it should be presented before the class and 
later before other classes. 

Talk to the Class. Re-tell the story that has been 
chosen for dramatization. 

Conversation. How many large divisions or acts 
should there be ? How many small divisions, or 
scenes, within each act? What should each com¬ 
prise? Decide definitely the acts and scenes to 
be given. 

Written English. Working in groups or commit¬ 
tees, prepare the dialogue for the different acts and 
scenes. Read your first attempts to the class. Let 
the class criticize your work and make a note of all 
good suggestions. 

Talk to the Class. Tell the class about some in¬ 
teresting play you have seen given. Give the name of 
the leading actor or actress and tell the story briefly. 

Written English. Make a second attempt to 
turn the acts and scenes into dialogue, using the 
suggestions obtained from the class. Choose a 
committee to select the best work for each act. 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 41 


Class Program. When the dialogue is finished, 
it should be read and acted before the class. If 
the work has sufficient merit, it should be committed 
to memory and presented before other classes or at 
the meeting of the school assembly. 


II. TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE 
VERBS 

■Which of the following expressions are complete 
sentences? Which need a word to complete the 
thought? 

1. The fire burns. 

2. The secretary wrote. 

3. The children play. 

4. The engine drew. 

5. The negro drove. 

You will observe that wrote , drew, and drove re¬ 
quire the addition of a noun to complete the meaning 
of the sentence. Notice the effect of this change. 

1. The secretary wrote a letter. 

2. The engine drew a heavy load. 

3. The negro drove the horse. 

Compare these sentences with the following: 

1. The secretary was a scholar. 

2. The engine was very large. 

3. The negro will be your driver. 

Observe that the word letter does not refer to the 
subject and does not represent the same thing. 
Wrote is not a linking verb. Drew and drove are 
not linking verbs, because the words that follow 
them do not refer to the subject. 


42 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


This new kind of verb represents the act as passing 
to a receiver. To this class we give the name transi¬ 
tive verbs. This classification should be interpreted 
liberally enough to include the possessive verb have 
and those that express the opposite of possession. 

1. John has a coat. 

2. The city lacks funds. 

All verbs that are not classed as transitive are 
called intransitive . Some verbs do not require any 
word to complete their meaning. They are called 
complete verbs. 

1. The <soldiers fought bravely. 

2. The sun shines brightly. 

3. We arrived at noon. 

The Object. You have already become familiar 
with subject and predicate and with predicate noun 
and predicate adjective. The new element which 
has just been introduced is called the object. A 
substantive that completes the meaning of a transi¬ 
tive verb is called the object. 


Exercise 1 

Select the object in each of the following sentences: 

1. The secretary read the letter. 

2. Each man bought a suit. 

3. Henry has an important position. 

4. We saw several automobiles in the park. 

5. Our teacher needs supplies. 

6. In the afternoon we picked wild strawberries. 

7. The botany class took a very pleasant journey to the forest. 

8. The governor supported the measure. 

9. The people of St. Louis elected the mayor for a term of four 

years. 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 43 


10. What work have you done ? 

11. The city has the power to enforce its ordinances. 

12. The park commissioner controls the parks and playgrounds. 

13. The mayor receives a salary of ten thousand dollars per 

annum. 

14. The children picked up the paper. 

15. Our books had no backs on them. 

16. The food administrator gave advice to housekeepers. 

17. Our soldiers bought some provisions. 

18. The child broke the glass. 

19. Everybody accused his neighbor of neglect. 

20. What rights should a citizen exercise ? 

Voice. Notice the form of the verb in each of the 
following sentences: 

1. Penn made a treaty with the Indians. 

2. A treaty with the Indians was made by Penn. 

3. Our team will win the game. 

4. The game will be won by our team. 

5. The enemy captured our first-line trenches. 

6. Our first-line trenches were captured by the enemy. 

You will see that the verbs in sentences one, three, 
and five represent their subjects as acting, and that 
those in sentences two, four, and six represent their 
subjects as receiving the act. 

Voice is the form of the verb that shows whether 
the subject is acting or receiving the act. 

The active voice is the form of the verb that rep¬ 
resents the subject as acting. 

1. John drew a picture. 

2. The boys camped on the bank of the river. 

3. The attorney pleaded the case. 

The passive voice represents the subject as re¬ 
ceiving the act. 

1. A picture was drawn by John. 

2. The case was pleaded by the attorney. 

3. The slaves were freed by Lincoln. 


44 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


The subject of voice is important only in the study 
of transitive verbs. It may be omitted in the con¬ 
sideration of intransitive verbs. Remember that 
transitive verbs in the active voice take an object 
and that in the passive voice the original object 
has become the subject. 


Exercise 2 

Classify the verbs as transitive or intransitive. 
Find transitive verbs in the passive voice. Name 
the object of all transitive verbs in the active voice. 

1. Henry wrote his lesson to-day. 

2. Charles was defeated in a race by William Welsh. 

3. The boys laid their coats on the ground. 

4. The police are arresting several local leaders. 

5. The president of our class delivered an address. 

6. Many people were slain in the recent riots. 

7. The secretary made a report to the class. 

8. We took a trip down the river in a house boat. 

9. After dinner we built a big bonfire. 

10. Three soldiers were struck by lightning. 

11. The teacher gave John a book. 

12. Our inkwells have been filled by the janitor. 

13. Jackson did many heroic deeds for his country. 

14. Everybody took off his hat. 

15. The new building has been completed for several weeks. 

Linking Verb and Transitive Verb Distinguished. 

You may be puzzled at times to distinguish between 
the linking verb and the passive voice of the tran¬ 
sitive verb. Remember that the linking verb is 
followed by a predicate noun or a predicate ad¬ 
jective. It does not represent its subject as being 
acted on. 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 45 


Exercise 3 

Determine whether each verb is linking or the 
passive voice of a transitive verb. 

1. It was voted unanimously to take a vacation. 

2. We were soon convinced of our error. 

3. Our visit had been a pleasure to us. 

4. At the close of day we were very tired. 

5. Bacon and eggs were fried for our supper. 

6. The lake is about fifteen miles long. 

7. We were driven ashore by the wind. 

8. All of our party were awake at four o’clock in the morning. 

9. Few plays are more popular than Hamlet. 

10. The members of our club had been informed of the plan. 

11. McKinley was assassinated by an anarchist. 

12. The President will be glad of the success of our armies. 

13. Have the books been ordered? 

14. The cotton-gin was a great invention. 

15. The cotton-gin was invented by Eli Whitney. 

The Indirect Object. How many objects has each 
of the following sentences? 

1. Washington gave the country her freedom. 

2. The captain bought his wife a present. 

You will observe that there are two objects in 
each sentence. One of these you have already 
learned to call the direct object. Find the direct 
object in each of the above sentences. The other 
object we may call the indirect object. 

An indirect object is a noun or pronoun that shows 
to whom or for whom something is done. Country 
and wife are indirect objects in sentences one and 
two. 

If the preposition is expressed with the indirect 
object, we do not call the noun an indirect object. 


46 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


1. Washington gave freedom to the country. 

2. The captain bought a present for his wife. 

The verbs teach and ask sometimes take two 
objects. In such cases when the verb is changed 
to the passive voice, the object that remains is called 
a retained object — as, “I was taught Latin” 


Exercise 4 

Find the direct and indirect objects in the fol¬ 
lowing sentences: 

1. The pupil brought his teacher a book. 

2. The boy gave his mother an orange. 

3. Father bought me a suit. 

4. The lawyer asked me many difficult questions. 

5. Laura taught John French. 

6. John was taught French. (French is called a retained object.) 

7. The king gave the colony a charter. 

8. The city furnished him his books. 

9. John made his sister a table. 

10. Father bought me a Liberty Bond. 

11. The clerk wrote me a letter. 

12. Vacation gave us more time for play. 

13. Fulton gave our country a very practical invention. 

14. The wealthy gentleman purchased a yacht for his son. 

15. Roosevelt gave the country the Panama Canal. 

The Adverbial Objective. Sometimes a noun may 
modify a verb and show the measure of time, value, 
distance, weight, and the like. 

1. Webster worked many years on his dictionary. 

2. The land cost one hundred dollars an acre. 

3. Lincoln walked many miles to borrow books. 

4. The box weighed twelve pounds. 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 47 


Exercise 5 

Find the adverbial objectives in these sentences 
and state what they modify: 

1. We walked four miles into the country. 

2. The chicken weighed four pounds. 

3. Good cloth costs one dollar a yard. 

4. The children studied three hours yesterday. 

5. Our representative ran a mile. 

6. How many pounds does the hog weigh ? 

7. Your book will cost a dollar. 

8. We slept six hours on the boat. 

9. The train traveled fifty miles an hour. 

10. We shall return home Wednesday. 

11. Some birds fly south in the winter. 

12. The club members walk two miles every day. 

The Objective Predicate. We have already learned 
that after a linking verb a noun, pronoun, or ad¬ 
jective may be used to refer to the subject. In 
such constructions the predicate noun or pronoun 
or adjective really belongs to the subject. In like 
manner a noun, pronoun, or an adjective may be 
used after a transitive verb to describe or explain 
its object. In the first sentence below, secretary 
completes the meaning of made and explains the 
direct object Stanton. In the second, innocent com¬ 
pletes the meaning of believed, and describes the 
object him. 

1. Lincoln made Stanton Secretary of War. 

2. We believed him innocent. 

3. The people elected Taft President. 

Later we shall learn that infinitives and participles/ 
which are used like nouns and adjectives, may be 
objective predicates. 


48 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


If we change the verb in this construction to the 
passive voice, we shall have in effect a linking verb, 
and the objective predicate becomes a predicate 
nominative or a predicate adjective. 

1. Stanton was made Secretary of War. 

2. Taft was elected President. 

Exercise 6 

Select the objective predicates and tell what word 
each explains or describes. 

1. The society elected Charles chairman. 

2. Wilson appointed Bryan Secretary of State. 

3. The colonists made America their home. 

4. Scholars call Lowell a great poet. 

5. The jury considers the criminal insane. 

6. The speaker declared the motion lost. 

7. We pronounced the new novel very interesting. 

8. The man named his son Rufus. 

9. The painter made the house beautiful. 

10. People call the senator a traitor. 

11. The American people considered the war just. 

12. The boy made the stick straight. 

Analysis. 

1. How to analyze a sentence with a direct object. 

“The secretary wrote a letter.” 

This is a declarative sentence. The complete 
subject is “The secretary”, of which “secretary” 
is the subject substantive. The complete predicate 
is “ wrote a letter ”, of which “ wrote ” is the predi¬ 
cate verb and “ letter ” is the object. 

2. How to analyze a sentence with an indirect object. 

“Washington gave the country her freedom.” 

This is a declarative sentence. The subject is 
“ Washington.” The complete predicate is “ gave 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 49 


the country her freedom ”, of which “ gave ” is the 
predicate verb and “ freedom ” the direct object. 
The indirect object is “ country.” 

3. How to analyze a sentence with an adverbial 
objective. 

“Webster worked many years on his dictionary.” 

This is a declarative sentence. The subject is 
“ Webster.” The complete predicate is “ worked 
many years on his dictionary ”, of which “ worked ” 
is the predicate verb and “ years ” the adverbial 
objective. 

4. How to analyze a sentence with an objective 
predicate. 

“The jury considered the criminal insane.” 

This is a declarative sentence. The complete sub¬ 
ject is “ The jury ”, of which “ jury ” is the subject 
substantive. The complete predicate is “ considered 
the criminal insane ”, of which “ considered ” is the 
predicate verb and “ insane ” the objective predi¬ 
cate describing the object “ criminal.” 

Exercise 7 

Analyze the following sentences: 

1. The American government has declared war. 

2. The superintendent gave the problem serious study. 

3. My attorney made me a present on my birthday. 

4. In the evening I worked an hour for the banker. 

5. Many helpers made the task easy. 

6. We left home very early. 

7. The new building cost a hundred thousand dollars. 

8. The child weighs sixty-five pounds. 

9. One day a friend and I set out some sweet-potato plants. 

10. The carpenter made the board smooth. 

11. Patience and industry will conquer many difficulties. 


50 JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 

12. The Chamber of Commerce elected Davis president. 

13. The man called the child Harry. 

14. The clever politician gave the audience false arguments. 

15. The church has greatly benefited civilization. 

16. The tailor made my brother a very beautiful suit. 

17. The high schools and colleges have given us better citizens. 

18. His farm yielded him a large income. 

19. Ignorant people make their lives miserable. 

20. The governor appointed Mr. Wood president of the board. 

21. John and James swept the room and the hall. 

22. The man planned and constructed a beautiful residence. 


CHAPTER FIVE 


I. THE SCHOOL PAPER 

Preparing Stories and Articles for the Paper. 

You no doubt know that many of the stories and 
articles submitted to your school paper or your 
class magazine are rejected. It is because they are 
not interesting. 

If you would make your themes interesting and 
acceptable for publication in the paper, you must 
choose suitable subjects — subjects that are not 
too large. Such subjects as How I Spent My 
Vacation or Our Auditorium Sessions are undesir¬ 
able, because there is so much to say about them 
that we can give merely a bare catalogue of events. 
If we attempt more than this, we find it necessary 
to break our theme into several divisions, or para¬ 
graphs. It is, then, much better to select a single 
phase of such subjects — for example, An Amusing 
Mishap at a Picnic. Perhaps you can think of 
subjects of this kind yourself to suggest at the class 
recitation, or it may be that your teacher will ask 
the class to make their own list of theme subjects. 

In order that you may see the difference between 
a theme that is merely a catalogue of events and one 
that is really interesting, read carefully the follow¬ 
ing description of the storm. Would it be interest¬ 
ing reading for the school paper ? 


52 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


One day in August we had a terrible storm. At first I no¬ 
ticed a little cloud. It grew very large in a short time. It be¬ 
gan to boil up. Suddenly the wind arose, and dust and leaves 
began blowing everywhere. We ran into the house and shut 
the doors and windows. Then it became dark. I turned on 
the lights and sat down. The rain beat against the windows and 
the wind roared. I was almost afraid to speak. It seemed a 
long time before it cleared away. 

Note the improvement when written as follows: 

It had been a very, very hot day in August, when suddenly 
a little speck appeared in the sky. In a short time it grew to 
a mammoth cloud, boiling like the waves of the sea. A great 
wind, too, suddenly appeared and drove the dust and leaves along 
before us. Greatly frightened, we rushed into the house and 
closed all the windows and doors. We felt rather secure now, 
but suddenly it became so dark that we had to turn on the lights. 
Then the rain began to beat violently against the windows, and 
the wind roared in the tree-tops. Oh, would it ever stop? The 
minutes dragged along like hours, but after what seemed an age 
the storm passed, and the sky became clear and beautiful. 

If you examine carefully the first theme, you will 
see that the sentences are short and poorly con¬ 
nected. There is greater variety and consequently 
greater interest in the statements of the second. 
In your themes try beginning some sentences with 
when, where, while, since, because, as, and the like. 
It helps also to select words that suggest action or 
make vivid pictures. Which words in the second 
theme are of this variety? Try also to get a good 
start. A good beginning sets the standard for the 
whole composition. Compare the opening sen¬ 
tences in the above stories. Is not the second a 
great improvement over the first ? 

Your attention has been called to the fact that 
the sentences in the first theme above are short and 
poorly connected. Another error quite as serious, 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 53 

however, is that of connecting these short ones by 
ands — the “ and ” habit. Sometimes a pupil will 
join all his statements in this way, running them 
into a sort of long single sentence. This is called 
the “ run-on ” sentence. To avoid this fault, read 
your themes carefully when you finish writing and 
strike out unnecessary ands. It is well, too, to 
vary your sentences in structure and length. 

Again, if you wish to make your themes interest¬ 
ing, you must plan them carefully. This requires 
that you select your material with care and arrange 
it in logical order. The editor would not accept an 
article that was a mere jumble of sentences. 

Paragraphing. Up to the present time you have 
been speaking and writing without much thought 
about the divisions of your themes. You have per¬ 
haps felt that certain sentences belonged together, 
and that others seemed entirely out of place. 
Sentences that belong together form a unit of 
thought. A group of sentences that belong together 
is called a paragraph. 

The writer should always tell his reader when he 
begins a new paragraph. He informs the reader by 
indenting the first line of the new division. To 
indent means to begin the first word of the first 
line a half-inch or an inch farther to the right than 
the left-hand margin. 

In order to paragraph well you must think your 
subject through. You must re-think and rearrange 
your thoughts so that they will stand in such rela¬ 
tion that your hearer or reader can easily follow 
you. This means that you must hold to one part 
of your subject in each division. It is not hard to 
learn that a new paragraph must begin to tell: here 


54 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


what happened next morning, here you visit an¬ 
other place, here some new person joins you, here 
you have described the outside of the house and now 
you must describe the inside, and so on. 

In the work of paragraphing and planning logical 
arrangement of your material, nothing is more help¬ 
ful than the making of an outline. Suppose, for 
example, a pupil wishes to write about a trip he has 
taken to a training camp. His outline might in¬ 
clude the following: 

A Visit to the Officers’ Training Camp at Fort Riley 

1. Arrival at Junction City 

2. The morning work of the soldiers 

(1) Bayonet practice 

(2) Digging trenches 

3. The afternoon work of the soldiers 

(1) Study 

(2) Dress parade 

4. Lowering the flag 

5. Conclusion] 

Note that each part of the outline stands in the 
right position. Naturally the lowering of the flag 
comes near the close and the afternoon work follows 
the morning work. This is the outline for a story, 
and things must be told in the order in which they 
happened. The problem of arrangement is, there¬ 
fore, not very difficult in this case. 

A Visit to the Officers’ Training Camp at Fort Riley 

We arrived at Junction City at 1:30 in the afternoon and 
spent the rest of the day at the hotel. In the morning we went 
to the post. The men had been up since five o’clock, had taken 
breakfast, and were ready for the day’s work. 

They say that the work is hard and after being there and 
seeing them, I believe it. Here were a group of men at bayonet 
practice, poking strange looking dummies suspended from a pole. 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 55 


Over there were some men digging trenches like so many laborers. 
At the other end of the grounds were still others at target prac¬ 
tice. 

How fast the time passed. It was now noon and the men 
went to lunch while we ate under the shade of a great tree. Then 
they went to their afternoon study and late in the afternoon to 
supper. After supper they had a dress parade. It was simply 
wonderful — at least I thought so. 

But I must not forget to tell you of the most wonderful 
event of the day — the lowering of the flag. The men all stood 
at attention while the band played the Star Spangled Banner . 
To see them impressed me very much. 

The men were now free till “taps” were sounded. We went 
over to visit with Father and my cousin till it was time for us 
to go. Then, after telling them good-by, we came back to St. 
Louis. — H. T. 

The Paragraph in Conversation. In conversa¬ 
tion every separate speech should be written as a 
paragraph. This tells the reader that the speaker 
has changed, and sometimes relieves the frequent use 
of such expressions as said she , replied he, etc. 
More will be said about writing the quotation in a 
later chapter, but we may lay down the general 
rule that the exact words of another should be in¬ 
closed in quotation marks. If the quotation is 
short, it is generally set off from the words that in¬ 
troduce it by a comma. Observe the following 
illustration: 

“Dr. Livesey,” he said, “in how many weeks do you and 
Squire expect the consort?” 

I told him it was not a question of weeks, but of months; that 
if we were not back by the end of August, Blandly was to send to 
find us; but neither sooner nor later. “You can calculate for 
yourself,” I said. 

“Why, yes,” returned the captain, scratching his head, “and 
making a large allowance, sir, for all the gifts of Providence, I 
should say we were pretty close hauled.” 


56 JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


“How do you mean?” I asked. 

“It’s a pity, sir, we lost that second load. That’s what I 
mean,” replied the captain. “As for powder and shot, we ’ll do. 
But the rations are short, very short — so short, Dr. Livesey, 
that we ’re, perhaps, as well without that extra mouth.” 

And he pointed to the dead body under the flag. 

— Treasure Island. 

Project V. A Writers’ Contest 

Planning the Project. In planning the project, 
the president of the class should preside, and the 
members should address him when they wish to 
speak. The following questions should be consid¬ 
ered : What kinds of material can be accepted ? 
What are the conditions of the contest? When 
must all work be turned in ? 

Your class discussion will probably result in an 
outline plan similar to this: 

I. Kinds of material to be accepted : 

1. Stories 

2. Articles (news articles and editorials) 

3. Poems 

II. Conditions of the contest: 

1. Stories and articles must be written on one side of the 

page 

2. They must be properly paragraphed 

3. They must be free from errors 

4. They must be interesting 

III. Date for closing the contest 

Suggestive List of Subjects. The following list 
of subjects may prove helpful to you in selecting 
the title for your story or article. You may, how¬ 
ever, go to the permanent list in your notebook 
or choose a subject entirely new: 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 57 


I. Subjects for stories: 

1. The most difficult task I ever undertook 

2. An amusing incident on the playground 

3. A new Christmas story 

4. The storm that drove us home 

5. Down the river in a boat 

6. Seeing the country in an automobile 

7. Called to an accounting 

8. Another Rebecca 

II. News articles: 

1. Our team won 

2. The best assembly session this term 

3. Our new baseball club 

4. An interesting visitor 

III. Other articles: 

1. Better order in the lunch room 

2. Advantages of a school club 

3. Keeping the school grounds clean 

4. Backing the school officers 

5. What I intend to do when I am grown up 

6. Thrift in the junior high 

Talk to the Class. Re-tell a story or give the sub¬ 
stance of an article that you have read. Choose 
something which you believe will illustrate what is 
suitable for the school paper. Tell the class why 
you think such material desirable. 

Written English. Prepare an outline of one of 
the foregoing subjects. First collect your material 
and then arrange it. 

Talk to the Class. Speak from the outline you 
have just prepared. Let a pupil preside and address 
him as chairman. Take a good position before the 
class and speak distinctly, using the best language 
you can command. It is well to observe the sim¬ 
pler rules of parliamentary practice. For exam- 


58 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


pie, when called on to speak, you should arise and 
say, “ Mr. Chairman, I wish to speak on the sub¬ 
ject -or tell the story-The chairman will 

then tell you to give your talk. He may say, for 
example, “ William will address the class.” When 
you have finished, the chairman will ask for sugges¬ 
tions which should help you in preparing your ar¬ 
ticle for the paper. 

Written English. Prepare the final draft of your 
story or article. Make sure that you meet the re¬ 
quirements of the contest. 

Class Program. When the stories are all ready, 
they should be read before the class. No comments 
should be made at this time. When all have been 
read, the class will vote to determine which are good 
enough to submit to the school paper. 


II. AUXILIARY VERBS AND 
THE VERB PHRASE 

Verbals. Verbs have only a few inflexional forms. 
Below are given the forms of some common verbs: 

begin, begins, began, beginning, begun 
write, writes, wrote, writing, written 

The first form of the verb, commonly called the 
present form, is the root form. From it the verb is 
named. Two of the above forms do not assert — 
the last two — beginning and begun , and writing and 
written. These words that do not assert are called 
verbals. Although they do not assert, they are 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 59 

capable of taking the same modifiers and words to 
complete their meaning as the verb. 

We saw John running rapidly to the house. 

In the foregoing sentence rapidly and to the house 
modify running. 

A form of the verb that does not assert, but that 
is capable of taking the same kind of modifiers and 
words to complete its meaning as the verb, is called 
a verbal. 

Verbals include infinitives, participles , and ger¬ 
unds. Read carefully the following sentences: 

1 . To write stories was his delight. 

2. The crowd saw the man falling. 

3. Running fast is good exercise. 

In the first sentence to write is an infinitive, in the 
second falling is a participle, and in the third run¬ 
ning is a gerund. 

1. The Infinitive. The infinitive form of the 
verb is the root form usually preceded by the word 
to. For example, we may mention to run, to jump, 
to hide, to play, to fall, to hear, to leave, and many 
more. Sometimes the word to is not used with the 
infinitive — as, “ He dared not go.” 

Read carefully the following sentences: 

1 . To run is good exercise. 

2. His duty is to fight. 

3. I like to play. 

4. He could do nothing except (to) whistle. 

Like a noun, to run is used as the subject of the 
first sentence and to fight as predicate nominative 
in the second. To play is used as the object of the 


60 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


verb in the third sentence, and to whistle as the ob¬ 
ject of the preposition except in the fourth. 

Notice how the infinitives are used in the follow¬ 
ing sentences: 


1. Houses to rent are scarce. 

2. The work is easy to do. 

To rent modifies houses and is therefore used as 
an adjective. To do modifies the adjective easy 
and is used as an adverb. 

2. The Participle. Observe the verbals in the 
following sentences: 

1. The child running to his mother is called Burl. 

2. Time lost cannot be found again. 

3. Shouting aloud, the boy startled all the assembly. 

You will see that running modifies child , lost 
modifies time, and shouting modifies boy. They 
are used like adjectives. These verbals are not, 
however, root forms of the verb. There are several 
participial forms of the verb as will be illustrated 
by the following: 

eating, eaten, having eaten, having been eaten 

going, gone, having gone 

working, worked, having worked 

striking, struck, having struck, having been struck 

falling, fallen, having fallen 

Sometimes a participle is used with a noun or 
pronoun to make up a phrase. Read the following 
illustrations: 

1. The work being done, I returned to the office. 

2. The gate opening, the horses entered the yard. 

3. The time having been fixed, I tried to keep my appointment. 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 61 

The phrases tell something about the predicate 
verb and are therefore adverbial phrases. For 
example, the phrase in the first sentence tells the 
time or the reason for my returning — thus : 

The work being done, I returned. 

When the work was done, I returned. 

Since the work was done, I returned. 

Some writers call such a phrase the absolute phrase. 

3. The Gerund. A verbal ending in ing may be 
used as a noun. 

1 . Serving your country is noble conduct. 

2. Roosevelt liked hunting bears. 

In the first sentence serving , like a noun, is the 
subject of the sentence. In the second, hunting is 
the object of liked. 

Verbals may be more easily remembered if we 
define each kind. 

An infinitive is a verbal of the root form used as 
an adjective, noun, or adverb. 

A participle is a verbal not of the root form used 
as an adjective. 

A gerund is a verbal ending in ing and having the 
uses of a noun. 


Exercise 1 

Select the verbals in the following sentences. 
Classify them as infinitives, participles, or ger¬ 
unds. 

1. The building having the tall belfry is our church. 

2. To hunt is excellent sport. 

3. Loving one’s country is not enough to do. 

4. Looking from the corner of the yard, one can see a tall tower. 


62 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


5. The cap, torn and dirty, was picked up by a tramp. 

6. Left behind, the horse could not find his way home. 

7. His going away was a surprise to all. 

8. Keeping in the rear, we soon managed to escape. 

9. I forgot to mention the falls. 

10. In the harvest field there is work to do. 

11. In the village we stopped to buy lunch. 

12. The men were ordered to go. (The infinitive is a retained 

object.) 

13. Studying Latin is no easy task. 

14. The child tried to go to its mother. 

15. Seeing the accident, the officer called an ambulance. 

Auxiliary Verbs and the Verb Phrase. Certain 
verbs are rarely used except with verbals to make 
up a phrase that performs the office of a verb. No¬ 
tice the following: 

is written, was struck, did run, has been killed, will be hurt, had gone 

Verbs so used are called helping, or auxiliary, 
verbs. They include be, have, do, shall, will, may, 
can, must, could, would, should, and a few others. 
Be, have, do, and will are used also as principal 
verbs — as, 


1. God is. 

2. I have a book. 

3. The carpenter did the work. 

When an auxiliary verb is used with a verbal, it 
makes up a verb phrase . 

Since the verb phrase has the use of a verb, it 
may be transitive, complete, or linking. The follow¬ 
ing sentences illustrate these kinds of phrases. 

1. The President has signed the bill. (Transitive verb phrase.) 

2. The general has spoken. (Complete verb phrase.) 

3. The Russian people will be free, (Linking verb phrase,) 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 63 


Exercise 2 

Select the verb phrases in the following sentences. 
Determine whether each is transitive, complete, or 
linking. 

1. The vessel had just set sail. 

2. The building had formerly been an old hotel. 

3. In the night our ship was struck by an iceberg. 

4. The army had attacked our troops in the early morning. 

5. We could see only the moon. 

6. By noon our party had become very tired. 

7. Everybody can remember some events of his childhood. 

8. The unfortunate man had been living on South Street. 

9. The boy’s father had been drowned in the Mississippi River. 

10. Never before had this country felt the need of soldiers so 

keenly. 

11. Until this year no one had expected prices to soar so high. 

12. Over our lines had passed a number of airplanes. 

13. The enemy had been driven back several miles. 

14. Our work has advanced rapidly. 

15. The old order will give place to the new. 

16. The clerk had always been considered honest. 

Analysis. Notice carefully the analysis of the 
following sentences: 

1. “To learn is difficult.” 

This is a declarative sentence. The subject is 
“ To learn ” and the complete predicate is “ is dif¬ 
ficult ” of which “ is ” is the linking verb and “ dif¬ 
ficult ” the predicate adjective. 

2. “His delight was to write stories.” 

This is a declarative sentence. The complete 
subject is “ His delight ”, of which “ delight ” is the 
subject substantive. The complete predicate is 
“ was to write stories ”, of which “ was ” is the 


64 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


linking verb and “ to write stories ” the infinitive 
used as a predicate noun. “ Stories ” is the ob¬ 
ject of the infinitive “ to write.” 

3. ‘‘Running fast is good exercise.” 

This is a declarative sentence. The complete 
subject is “ Running fast ”, of which the subject 
substantive is “ running ” and “ fast” an adver¬ 
bial modifier. The complete predicate is “is good 
exercise ”, of which “ is ” is the linking verb and 
“ exercise ” the predicate noun. 

4. “Keeping to the rear, we managed to escape.” 

This is a declarative sentence. The complete sub¬ 
ject is “ Keeping to the rear, we ”, of which “ we ” is 
the subjective substantive and “ Keeping to the rear ” 
a participial phrase belonging to the subject “ we.” 
The complete predicate is “ managed to escape ”, 
of which “ managed ” is the predicate verb and “ to 
escape ” an infinitive used as the object. 

5. “Henry saw the man falling.” 

This is a declarative sentence. The subject is 
“ Henry.” The complete predicate is “ saw the 
man falling”, of which “ saw” is the predicate verb 
and “man” the object. “Falling” is a participle 
belonging to “ man.” 


Exercise 3 

Analyze the following sentences: 

1. To love one’s country is to be patriotic. 

2. The new teacher knew how to do his work. 

3. We like to ride fine horses. 

4. The house having burned to the ground, I returned. 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 65 

5. Studying French was his delight. 

6. The time for marching rapidly had now come. 

7. Houses to sell could not be found anywhere. 

8. The letter written yesterday has been mailed. 

9. How can a man forget to do his duty? 

10. We believed him to be innocent. 

11. The captain ordered his men to march. (The infinitive 

and its subject are the object of the verb.) 

12. Time to come is called the future. 

13. The child, having cut its hand, came running to its mother. 

(The word “running” modifies “child.”) 

14. What has been done to help him? 

15. An opportunity for doing good has at last appeared. 

16. The door being open, the child entered. 

17. My friend did not want to leave me. 

18. Running to the bell, the child began to pull the rope. 

19. To live for others was his intention. 

20. How did he intend to do the work? 

Punctuation. Participial expressions that are 
added to nouns or pronouns loosely, or to present 
an additional idea, are set off by commas. 

1. John, hoping that he would succeed, entered the contest. 

2. Impressed by the sermon, many men united with the church. 

3. Marching to the beat of the drum, the soldiers entered the 

enemy’s territory. j 

Participial expressions that modify a noun or 
pronoun closely should not be separated by a 
comma. Usually such participles could not be 
omitted without changing the meaning of the 
sentence. 

1. The child kept in school is my cousin. 

2. The man walking down the street is our mayor. 

3. The building damaged by fire is the Orphans’ Home. 

Participles standing in the predicate are not set 
off by a comma. 

1. The officer found the child lying in an automobile. 

2. We saw the clown acting. 


66 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


The absolute phrase is set off by a comma. 

1. The officer having been recalled, the people elected another man. 

2. A false report being circulated, we felt much discouraged. 


Exercise 4 

Punctuate the following sentences where it may 
be necessary: 

1. Thinking that the work was done we departed for home. 

2. Henry seeing the child fall ran to pick it up. 

3. We saw the band playing in the park. 

4. The gates being open the crowd pushed into the park. 

5. The boy standing on the corner is my brother. 

6. Coming down the river I felt all right. 

7. The horse kept in the pasture kicked his master. 


CHAPTER SIX 


I. THE SCHOOL CLUBS 

Which of the following clubs does your school 
have? 


A dramatic club 
A literary society 
A library club 
A science club 
A bird club 
A star club 
Boy Scouts 
Camp Fire Girls 


A baseball club 
A tennis club 
An outdoor club 
An orchestra 
A stamp club 
A young men’s business 
club 

Junior Red Cross 


If your school should have none of these, your 
class organization will serve the purpose. 

You have no doubt discovered that as a member 
of a club you wish to buy something for your own 
use or for your society. For example, if you are a 
member of the baseball club, you will need a ball 
and glove. If you belong to the science club, you 
will need materials for your experiments. Indeed, 
in any club you will find that certain things are 
needed. You will doubtless need to write a letter 
ordering some of them. 

Project VI. A Letter Ordering Something for 
Your Club 

Talk to the Class. Prepare a talk on the subject: 
What I should like to order for use in my club or 
What I think our club should ordqr, With the class 


68 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


as a club and the president or another member pre¬ 
siding, state in clear and correct English your 
thoughts on the subject. 

Planning the Work. Doubtless you will find 
that such letters as the following will be suggested: 

A letter asking for a catalogue 
A letter ordering a soccer ball 
A letter ordering a bicycle 
A letter ordering a kodak 

A letter subscribing for a stamp collector’s paper 
A letter ordering Boy-Scout goods 
A letter ordering electrical supplies for a radio outfit 

Before you can write a letter ordering goods, you 
must find out something about how a business letter 
should be written. Secure samples of business 
letters from your parents or business houses and 
make up a style-book. Of course, only letters that 
are correct in form should finally be placed in your 
collection. Study carefully the parts — how each 
is written and where placed. You will discover 
that every letter consists of six parts — the heading, 
address, salutation, body, complimentary close, and 
signature. Notice the position and arrangement 
of each part in the following letter: 

5938 Kingsbury Avenue, 
St. Louis, Missouri, 
May 3, 1923. 

Cullom & Boren Co., 

1101 Elm Street, 

Dallas, Texas. 

Gentlemen: 

Please send me Catalogue No. 21 of your spring and 
summer sporting goods. 

Yours truly, 

Frank Hanson 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 69 

The heading tells where and when the letter was 
written. Find the heading in the foregoing letter. 
It should be placed about two inches from the top 
of the page in the upper right-hand corner. It con¬ 
sists of three lines, each beginning to the right of the 
one above. If the writer lives in a small place 
where there is no city delivery of the mail, he will 
not include any street address. The date should 
always occupy the last line of the heading and should 
be written by itself. As you can see from the 
headings given above, no abbreviations are used. 
This is considered the best usage, but the longer 
names of the months and states may be abbreviated. 
Remember that the names of our territories and 
colonial possessions and Utah, Iowa, and Ohio should 
be written in full. The words May, June, and July 
should not be abbreviated. Follow every abbrevia¬ 
tion with a period — for example, Minn, for 
Minnesota, Colo, for Colorado. Notice that a comma 
is used at the end of each line except the last, which 
is followed by a period. A comma is also used 
between the items on the same line. Good usage 
also approves of the omission of the punctuation 
at the end of each line. 

The heading is often printed at the top of the 
page and is then called a letterhead. The following 
will serve as an illustration : 

Little, Brown & Company 
34 Beacon Street 
Boston 

It sometimes happens that the name of the street 
is a number — as, Fourth Street, Fifth Street. In 
this case you may be puzzled to know how to write 


70 JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 

it. When the house number would stand next to 
the name, always write the name of the street. 
Write 150 Fifth Avenue, not 150 5th Avenue. 
It is a safe rule always to spell the name of the street, 
but when the number would require two words 
most authorities advise that figures be used — as, 
S. 23d Street, W. 31st Street. 

The address tells to whom the letter is sent. Find 
the address in the foregoing letter. What does it 
include? You will observe that the first line of 
the address begins at the left-hand margin and about 
one-fourth of an inch below the last line of the 
heading. Each succeeding line begins one-half inch 
to the right. End punctuation is generally used, 
although many prefer to omit it. When the city 
and state are written on the same line, they are 
separated by a comma. Abbreviations, of course, 
must always be followed by a period. Always 
write the name of the person or firm addressed just 
as that person or firm writes it. Use the following 
terms of respect: Mr., Mrs., and Miss before the 
names of persons, and Messrs, before a firm or board 
composed of gentlemen. Messrs, is not being used 
now very generally. Miss is not an abbreviation 
and so is not followed by a period. Other terms of 
respect, and titles, may be used according as we wish 
to be more particular. Dr. should be used before 
the name of a physician and Reverend before the 
name of a clergyman. If you are writing to a gov¬ 
ernor, representative, senator, judge, or other public 
official, you may use the word Honorable or the 
abbreviation Hon. before the name. It is per¬ 
missible in addressing a clergyman to use two titles 
— as, The Reverend Mr. Bunting; but in all other 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 71 

cases only one should be used. In addressing a firm 
composed of women, use Mesdames or Ladies; and in 
addressing the wife of a professor, doctor, clergyman, 
or other persons having titles, do not use her hus¬ 
band’s title. Write Mrs. Jonathan Walker , not 
Mrs. Dr. Walker. 

Persons using a typewriter often bring each item 
of the heading and address to a vertical line for 
convenience — thus: 

Mr. Henry Blair, 

610 Franklin St., 

St. Louis, Missouri. 

The salutation is the greeting. The forms that 
are generally used in business correspondence are 
the following: Dear Sir , Dear Madam , Gentlemen , 
and Ladies. In personal letters, the name of the 
person is often used — as, Dear John , Dear Doctor 
Cross , Dear Uncle Robert , and the like. The word 
Sir is rarely used alone, being evidently too formal. 
Gentlemen is gaining in usage in the case of greeting 
the members of a board, committee, firm, cor¬ 
poration, and the like. Do not use Messrs, in 
the salutation for Gentlemen , or Mesdames for La¬ 
dies. The salutation is now generally followed by 
a colon. 

The body of the letter contains the message. 

A business letter should be written on white com¬ 
mercial paper, which is about 8-J- by 11 inches in size 
and unruled. A margin of one inch should be 
allowed on the left-hand side and the writing should 
not crowd the right-hand edge. The first line of 
each paragraph should begin one-half inch to the 
right of the margin fine. Your attention has been 


72 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


called to the commercial paper commonly used. In 
addition to this, small commercial paper, about 
8 by 5^ in size, may be used. This is appropriate 
for short letters. Also small four-page sheets, called 
note paper , may be used in business correspondence, 
but it is much more frequently used in social 
correspondence. If flat sheets of paper are used, 
write only on one side. The body should close 
with a complete sentence. 

The complimentary close consists of such ex¬ 
pressions as Yours truly, Yours very truly, Very 
truly yours, etc. Yours respectfully and Respectfully 
yours are now generally used in letters to supe¬ 
riors only. Occasionally Sincerely yours is used 
to indicate slight friendship. In the case of friendly 
letters the number of forms is varied to indicate 
different relationships — as, Lovingly, Cordially, Cor¬ 
dially yours, Sincerely yours, Sincerely your friend, 
etc. 

Do not connect the complimentary close with the 
body of the letter — thus: 

Thanking you, I remain 
Yours truly, 

John Brant 

It is better to close the body of the letter with a 
completed sentence. Only the first word of the com¬ 
plimentary close begins with a capital, and the whole 
expression is followed by a comma. 

In business correspondence the signature of the 
writer should be his official signature; that is, the 
same that he uses in signing checks and papers. 
In social letters, when people are well known to 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 73 

each other, only the given name need be written. 
In every case, the signature should be neatly and 
carefully written. 

The envelope address is of course the same as the 
inside address. The following form has been recom¬ 
mended by the Government Postal Department: 


Cullom & Boren Company, 
1101 Elm Street, 
Dallas, 

Texas. 


The first line should begin near the middle of the 
envelope and have an equal amount of space on its 
left and right sides. Each line should begin a little 
to the right of the next one above. Most business 
houses use end punctuation. All abbreviations 
should be followed by a period. 

If commercial paper is used for the letter, com¬ 
mercial envelopes should be selected for mailing. 
The commercial envelope is about 6^ by 3^ inches 
in size. If note paper is used, envelopes also of 
the same kind of paper and size should be secured. 
In folding commercial paper of the full size, raise 
the bottom of the sheet and fold it over making a 
crease about an inch below the middle. Turn the 
sheet and fold again making a crease at about one- 
third of the distance. Then fold down from the 
other side, creasing at about one-fourth the dis¬ 
tance. Thus folded the letter should fit the com¬ 
mercial envelope. Fold note paper once, creasing in 
the middle, and place it in the envelope with the 
crease down. 


74 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


The following letter shows the correct form of a 
letter ordering goods: 

5938 Kingsbury Avenue, 
St. Louis, Missouri, 
May 5, 1921. 

Cullom & Boren Co., 

1101 Elm Street, 

Dallas, Texas. 

Gentlemen: 

You will find inclosed six dollars and fifty cents ($6.50) for 
which please send me by Parcel Post the following goods: 

1 No. 12 X Catcher’s Mitt 
1 doz. No. 29 Junior League Baseballs 

Yours truly, 

t Frank Hanson 

Writing a Letter. Prepare a pencil copy of your 
letter ordering something for your club. After your 
teacher has examined it, rewrite it with pen and ink 
and place it in the envelope. Be especially careful 
to write the envelope address legibly. 


II. MOOD AND TENSE 

Mood. You will now consider how assertions 
are made. 

1. Asia is the largest of the continents. 

2. If Jackson were living, he would be a stern patriot. 

3. May our country always be right. 

4. Bring me the book. 

In the first sentence the speaker states a fact, 
in the second a condition contrary to fact, in the 
third a wish, and in the fourth a command. 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 75 


The indicative mood is the manner of assertion 
which shows that the speaker regards the assertion 
as a fact. 

1. Garfield was assassinated by Guiteau. 

2. How long did you work f 

The subjunctive mood is the manner of assertion 
which shows that the speaker regards the assertion 
as only thought of or as a mere condition of mind. 
At present this mood is used to express a condition 
contrary to fact, a wish, or volition in the third 
person. 

1. If I were you, I would stay. (Condition contrary to fact.) 

2. Long may our flag wave over the land of the free. (Wish.) 

3. I urge that the senate investigate the matter. (Volition.) 

4. I move that Gerald be appointed chairman. (Volition.) 

The imperative mood is the manner of assertion 
that is used in making commands. 


Exercise 1 
Tell the mood of each verb: 

1. The electrician installed a new moving-picture machine. 

2. I wish that you would stay a year. 

3. If I were governor, I would veto the measure. 

4. Were all men wealthy, it would be unfortunate. 

5. What has the food administration done for the people ? 

6. We read the story in the journal. 

7. Had he done his duty, the accident would not have happened. 

8. Bring your books to the desk. 

9. Stand your ground like men. 

10. No man could foresee the result of the great conflict. 

11. Would that we could end all war! 

12. If he is telling this story, he is not my friend. (Assertion is 

regarded as a fact.) 


76 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


13. If he were telling this story, he would be false to himself. 

14. Mr. Taft was President of the League to Enforce Peace. 

15. I have asked a trustworthy foreman to examine each piece 

of furniture. 

Tense. You have observed that a verb may have 
several forms. Some of these forms indicate the 
kind of assertion, but others shov/ time. 

1. The boy sings a song. 

2. The boy sang a song. 

3. The boy will sing a song. 

Sings denotes present time, sang past time, and 
will sing future time. In these cases the terms 
present tense, past tense, and future tense should be 
used. The verb really has but two forms to denote 
time, or tense — namely, present and past. The 
future tense is a verb phrase made up of shall or 
will and the infinitive of a verb. This tense is illus¬ 
trated by such forms as shall write, will write, shall 
go, will go, shall strike, will strike. 

The Perfect Tenses. The action of the verb may 
be represented as completed at the present time, 
at a given past time, or at some future time. 

1. Henry has sung a song. 

2. Henry had sung a song. 

3. Henry will have sung before the meeting closes. 

A verb phrase that represents the action as com¬ 
pleted at the present time is in the present perfect tense. 
See sentence numbered 1, above. 

A verb phrase that represents the action as com¬ 
pleted at some definite past time is in the past per¬ 
fect tense. See the sentence numbered 2, above. 

A verb phrase that represents the action as com¬ 
pleted at some future time is in the future perfect 
tense. See the sentence numbered 3, above. 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 77 


In the imperative mood there is but one tense — 
the present. 


Sing (you or ye). 

In the subjunctive mood, a verb may be in the 
present or past tenses or in the present perfect or 
past perfect tenses. 

Exercise 2 

State the mood and tense of each verb in the fol¬ 
lowing sentences. Is each verb in the active or 
in the passive voice ? 

1. We stopped at a little town in the Ozark Mountains. 

2. Had the road been smooth, our ride would have been 

pleasant. 

3. Leave your wraps in this room. 

4. I found thirty-five arrow-heads the next day. 

5. Borrow a torch from your neighbor. 

6. The dog took hold of my slipper and pulled on it. 

7. If I were only a giant, I would stand against this mob. 

8. One warm spring day I received an invitation to go swim¬ 

ming. 

9. To-morrow we shall hear Mr. Taft speak. 

10. We have been disappointed by the weather. 

11. On the tenth of this month my brother will have been in 

camp sixty days. 

12. Our light was furnished by old-time torches. 

13. The automobile had been struck by a fast passenger train. 

14. If he had insisted, I would have gone. 

15. A little girl came running to us with a collection of dolls. 

16. We had just thanked the Japanese lady for her kindness. 

17. The Camp Fire Girls had spent a pleasant afternoon at the 

river. 

18. All of the pupils have had good advantages. 

19. The government will try to provide for its soldiers. 

20. The boy did not know any more about sailing than I. 

21. A silver loving-cup will be given to the winner of the race. 


78 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


22. I recommend that the chairman appoint an election com¬ 

mittee. 

23. The boys started off together but neither could win. 

24. I really could never forget my first day in school. 

25. The glass was broken by a bullet from the soldier’s gun. 

How to Spell Difficult Verb Forms. Special 
study should be given to the spelling of the past 
tense, the present participle, and the past participle 
of regular verbs ending in a single consonant pre¬ 
ceded by a single vowel. If they are monosyllables 
or are accented on the last syllable, the final con¬ 
sonant is doubled. 


1 


map 

nod 

plan 

sin 

slam 

slap 

strip 

strut 


bat 

drag 

grip 

hop 

jot 


batted 

dragged 

gripped 

hopped 

jotted 

mapped 

nodded 

planned 

sinned 

slammed 

slapped 

stripped 

strutted 


batting 

dragging 

gripping 

hopping 

jotting 

mapping 

nodding 

planning 

sinning 

slamming 

slapping 

stripping 

strutting 


2 


debar 

defer 

omit 

prefer 

refer 


control 


compel 


compelled 

controlled 

debarred 

deferred 

omitted 

preferred 

referred 


debarring 

deferring 

omitting 

preferring 

referring 


compelling 


controlling 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 79 

Special attention should also be given to the 
spelling of the third person singular, present tense 
and past tense, of verbs ending in y. 

1* If V is preceded by a consonant, change y 
to i and add es . 


cry 

cries 

cried 

dry 

dries 

dried 

% 

flies 

flew 

hurry 

hurries 

hurried 

study 

studies 

studied 

try 

tries 

tried 

2. If y is 

preceded by a vowel, 

add s to 

present and ed to form the past. 


delay 

delays 

delayed 

r P la y 

plays 

played 

pray 

prays 

prayed 

stay 

stays 

stayed 

3. The following vary from the rule: 

lay 

lays 

laid 

pay 

pays 

paid 

say 

says 

said 


CHAPTER SEVEN 


I. THE SCHOOL CLUBS ( Continued) 

You are no doubt intensely interested in the work 
of your club. Why was it organized? For what 
does it stand ? What is it doing ? 

You will find many occasions to speak and write 
about it. For example, you will probably want to 
hold a membership drive. Perhaps a still better 
project would be A “ Boost Your Club ” Campaign . 

Project VII. A “ Boost Your Club” Campaign 

Talk to the Class. Prepare a two-minute speech 
explaining what your club stands for and telling 
\yhy you joined it. If possible, choose a motto for 
it and word it in good English. 

Preparing a Poster or Advertisement. Make a 
poster with a drawing and several interesting state¬ 
ments about your club. Write only the facts you 
would like to have others remember. 

Preparing to Write a Letter. Our project will 
furnish many occasions for social letters — that is, 
friendly letters, informal notes, and formal notes. 
For example, you may write to a pupil in another 
class telling him what your club is doing and per¬ 
haps urging him to join, or you may write to a pupil 
in the junior high school of some other city, telling 
him about your club and asking about his. Again, 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 81 


you may write an informal note inviting some one to 
attend an affair to be given by your club, or issue 
a formal] invitation. Before you begin to prepare 
your letter, read carefully the following discussion: 

The parts of the friendly letter are, of course, the 
same as those of the business letter, but there are 
some modifications. For example, the street ad¬ 
dress may be omitted from the heading, particu¬ 
larly if the person to whom you write is well known 
to you. 

It is not necessary to write the inside address of 
the person to whom you are writing. This may 
appear only on the envelope. In case the letter is 
addressed to a stranger, and does not contain mat¬ 
ters of business, the inside address should be written 
at the close, beginning at the left-hand margin and 
one line below the signature. 

The salutation may be any of a great number of 
forms, depending on the degree of intimacy between 
the writer and his correspondent. The following 
are at least suggestive of good usage: Dear Frank, 
My dear Frank, Dear Father, Dear Sister, Dear Mr. 
Wells, and the like. The word dear is not capital¬ 
ized unless it is the first word. Many authors say 
that all nouns in the salutation should be capital¬ 
ized. Follow the salutation with a colon or a 
comma. 

The body of the letter should always carry an inter¬ 
esting message of friendship. It should be written 
in the conversational style, but should never be care¬ 
lessly written. Write as you talk, bearing in mind 
the fact that your friends will be interested in details 
and the news of their acquaintances. Do not be¬ 
gin your letter with excuses or apologies. The 


82 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


effect of this is to weaken the entire letter. It is 
much better to omit apologies altogether. It is 
not courteous to begin with such sentences as the 
following: As I have nothing else to do, I shall try 
to answer your letter. You should make your friend 
feel that it is a pleasure to write to him. Do not 
omit the subject pronouns in your sentences as you 
would in telegrams, thus: Received your letter and 
shall answer to-day . In closing your letter do not 
use such worn-out expressions as Hoping to hear 
from you soon, I remain, etc. It is much better to 
close with a complete sentence. 

The complimentary close is generally informal. 
The following are forms often used: Yours sincerely, 
Sincerely yours, Lovingly, Affectionately, Cordially, 
Cordially yours, Your sister, and the like. 

The signature need not include the full name of 
the writer, but should be written neatly. It should 
be placed below the complimentary close and begin 
a little to the right. 

The following shows the correct form and style 
of the friendly letter: 


Peoria, Illinois, 

.p. _ January 2, 1923. 

Dear Esther: 

I was simply delighted with your last letter. It contained 
so much interesting news. I have read it over two or three times. 
However, I was sorry to hear that Ella was sick. I hope she wili 
be able to come to our club party next week. 

I must tell you about my Christmas presents. I received a 
towel somewhat like the one you gave me. I also received a 
gold ring and a new set of furs. 

I wanted to make you something this Christmas, and I have 
the same old excuse busy. But I am going to send you a 
remembrance, even if I couldn’t make it myself. You may 
look for it some time next week. 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 83 


You can’t imagine how proud I ’ll be to get the plate you are 
painting for me. Margaret also likes painting, but says it does 
not fit into the course she is taking. 

I believe all the neighbors are well. I see them passing oc¬ 
casionally and all look well and happy. 

Well, Catherine says the Sand Man is coming and she wants 
to go to bed. My eyes also are getting heavy; so I shall not 
write more this time. I am expecting a long letter from you 
very soon. 

Lovingly, 

Helen. 


An informal note is a short friendly letter. The 
inside address is omitted and the other parts are 
like those of the ordinary friendly letter. As to 
the body of the note, it includes invitations and 
replies, notes accompanying gifts, requests for 
favors, apologies, announcements, congratulations, 
and condolences. 

The following invitation shows the correct form 
and style of the informal note: 


5100 Maple Avenue, 

December 10, 1922. 

Dear James, 

Father has gone to Jefferson City to-day to spend a week. 
I am alone and have nothing to do. Come over and we will go 
fishing. Be sure to bring your hook and line. 

Sincerely yours, 

John. 

The formal note is written in the third person and 
in very formal language. The answer should also 
be of the same form and style. In some cases, 
however, no reply is required — for example, invi¬ 
tations to public weddings and public receptions. 


84 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


The following show how the formal note should be 
written: 

Miss Bessie Horn 
requests the pleasure of 
Miss Agnes Tovey’s company at a party 
to be given by the Camp Fire Girls in Room 320, 

. Tuesday afternoon, November the fourth, 
at four o’clock. 

October thirtieth 

Miss Agnes Tovey accepts with pleasure Miss Bessie Horn’s 
kind invitation to attend a party to be given in Room 320, 
Tuesday afternoon, November the fourth, at four o’clock. 

November second 

The stationery of the formal letter differs some¬ 
what from that of ordinary correspondence. Cor¬ 
respondence cards with envelopes of the size to 
match are coming to be used quite generally for this 
purpose. Plain white, cream, or French gray are 
considered best. It is well to avoid highly tinted 
paper. Invitations of clubs and societies are often 
printed. 

Important as correct form may be, by far the 
most important thing is to be able to make your 
letters interesting. In general, you should write 
your own thoughts and feelings in your own way. 
Of course, you must take care to make every state¬ 
ment clear. If you are at home, remember that 
common everyday bits of news — what you are 
doing, seeing, reading — will always please. If 
your club is giving a program, doing something for 
the school, or conducting an advertising campaign, 
your friends will be interested in the details. If 
you are taking a trip to the lake, the park, or else- 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 85 

where, make them feel that they are present and 
enjoying the delightful experiences. 

In order that you may see just how a friendly 
letter should be written, your attention is directed 
to the following selection from Louisa Alcott’s 
Diary. 1 Notice how natural and informal, yet 
how charming, her language is. Read it through 
several times and try to make her style your own: 

“I rose at five and had my bath. I love cold water! Then 
we had our singing-lesson with Mr. Lane. After breakfast I 
washed dishes, and ran on the hill till nine, and had some 
thoughts, — it was so beautiful up there. Did my lessons — 
wrote and spelt and did sums; and Mr. Lane read a story, 
‘The Judicious Father’: How a rich girl told a poor girl not to 
look over the fence at the flowers, and was cross to her because 
she was unhappy. The father heard her do it and made the 
girls change clothes. The poor one was glad to do it, and he 
told her to keep them. But the rich one was very sad; for she 
had to wear the old ones a week, and after that she was good to 
shabby girls. I like it very much, and I shall be kind to poor 
people. 

“Father asked us what was God’s noblest work. Anna said 
men, but I said babies. Men are often bad; babies never are. 
We had a long talk, and I felt better after it, and cleared up. 

“We had bread and fruit for dinner. I read and walked and 
played till supper-time. We sang in the evening. As I went to 
bed the moon came up very brightly and looked at me. I felt 
sad because I have been cross to-day, and did not mind Mother. 
I cried, and then I felt better, and said that piece from Mrs. 
Sigourney, ‘I must not tease my mother.’ I get to sleep saying 
poetry, — I know a great deal.” — Louisa May Alcott. 

Writing a Letter. Write a letter to a friend in 
an English class other than your own, telling him 
all about your club. Tell him the purpose of the 
club, and the interesting things that the society is 
doing. 

1 Published by Little, Brown, and Company. 


86 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


A Class Debate. Prepare a two-minute talk on 
the question, Resolved , that once a week a period 
shall be set apart on the regular program for a meeting 
of the clubs. If you speak for the resolution, you 
are said to be on the affirmative side. If you speak 
against it, you are said to be on the negative side. 
The chairman will first call on an affirmative speaker 
and then a negative speaker, and so on until all have 
spoken. At the close, the class should vote to de¬ 
termine which side wins the debate. 

Writing a Letter. Write to a class in the junior 
high school of some other city telling about your 
club and your school. Inquire about similar organ¬ 
izations in their school. Try to imitate the style 
of Miss Alcott as given in the foregoing letter. 

Writing an Informal Invitation. Write an in¬ 
formal invitation to a friend to attend a program to 
be given by your club, to go on a trip with you, or 
to be present at a party. 

II. MODIFIERS 

Adjectives and Adverbs. You have already 
learned that a sentence must consist of a substan¬ 
tive and a verb. You are now to learn that certain 
words, called modifiers, belong to the substantive 
and the verb. Read carefully the following sen¬ 
tences : 


1. Dishonest men often succeed. 

2. The child seemed very happy. 

3. The speaker spoke more distinctly to-day. 

In the first sentence the subject substantive is 
men and the predicate verb is succeed. What word 
belongs to men and tells something about men? 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 87 


What word belongs to succeed and tells something 
about it? The word dishonest belongs to men and 
is said to modify the word. It is called an adjective. 
The word often belongs to succeed and is called an 
adverb. In the second sentence very modifies the 
adjective happy, and in the third more modifies the 
adverb distinctly. Very and more are classed as 
adverbs. 

A word that modifies a substantive is an adjective. 

A word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or 
another adverb is an adverb. 

A noun or pronoun may be modified by several 
adjectives. 

1. The old year has passed. 

2. The good old year has passed. 

3. His dear old father has just died. 

You will observe that the adjectives are not 
equal in rank. They do not do the same work and 
hence are not coordinate'. In the second sentence 
the modifies the whole expression good old year , and 
good modifies old year. Each adjective seems to 
modify what follows. Adjectives so used should 
not be separated by a comma. 

Sometimes the adjectives take the form of a se¬ 
ries, the members being equal, or coordinate, in use. 
They should then be separated by the comma. 

1. The gentle, just, and merciful judge pronounced the sentence. 

2. Peru may be likened to a tall, irregular, graystone house. 

Adverbs, too, may be used in a series coordinate 
in use. They should then be separated by the 
comma. 

Slowly, sadly, and hopelessly the slave attended to his tasks. 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


How Adjectives Are Named. Adjectives are 
named according to their position in the sentence. 
An adjective that stands before the noun and modi¬ 
fies it directly is an adherent adjective.] 

My white horse tripped over the rolling bowlders. 

An adjective that follows a noun and is loosely 
attached to it is an appositive adjective. The 
appositive adjective should be separated by commas . 

1. The traveler, happy and hopeful, set out for the lowlands. 

2. Our prospect, bright in every respect, was pleasing. 

Your attention has already been called to the 
fact that an adjective used in the predicate with a 
linking verb is called a predicate adjective. A pred¬ 
icate adjective belongs to the subject. 

1. The tree is tall. 

2. The children seem happy. 

Exercise 1 

Select the modifiers in the following sentences and 
state whether each is an adjective or an adverb. 
Note the punctuation of each sentence. 

1. Mary and Elizabeth live in the beautiful white stone house. 

2. Here were many dainty little flowers. 

3. Little Mary often felt sick. 

4. A great fire broke out suddenly. 

5. We watched the soldiers attentively. 

6. The mouth is almost never in a state of true cleanliness. 

7. One child sick with a cold can infect a whole class. 

8. Our wise ancestors had very good health. 

9. The little newsboy had a pale face and dull sunken eyes. 

10. Test each eye separately. 

11. It was a very cold dreary day in December. 

12. The old man at the window did not move. 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 89 


13. How old are the relics? 

14. Our pupils loyally supported their team. 

15. The rider carelessly, roughly, and unfeelingly rode over the 

child’s body. 


CHAPTER EIGHT 


I. A HEALTH CAMPAIGN 

Read carefully the following selection from the 
United States Public Health Reports: 

“ The health of the community should be of interest to every 
individual, for upon it depends the welfare of himself, of his 
family, and of his fellow citizens. Upon the health of the people 
depend the happiness and prosperity of the community. With¬ 
out health there can be no real prosperity, and such material 
success as may be attained is of little benefit. 

“ Do what we will, our health depends not only on how we 
live but also on how the other people of the community live. 
The danger of infection from the sick and diseased we never see 
is often greater than that from the sick we do see. We can 
protect ourselves from those we see and know of, but we are in a 
large measure helpless to protect ourselves from those of whose 
existence we are unaware. 

“ The health department is a department created and sup¬ 
ported by the people to look after the community’s health, to 
protect them and their neighbors from exposure to sickness.” 

You will readily see that good health is of such 
great importance that the cities and towns have 
provided departments of health to carry on the 
work. You and your class should give every assist¬ 
ance possible. Would it not be well to conduct a 
health campaign of your own for the purpose of 
getting acquainted with the agencies the community 
uses for protecting health, arousing boys and girls 
to the necessity of obeying the rules of good health, 
and helping to prevent the spread of disease ? 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 91 
Project VIII. Conducting a Health Campaign 

Planning the Work. In order that the class may 
get acquainted with the agencies which the com¬ 
munity uses to advance public health, the president 
should appoint a number of committees to investi¬ 
gate the following topics and report on them later : 

1. The board of health in your city 

2. The sewage system 

3. Methods of disposing of garbage 

4. The water-works system and the water supply 

5. The city milk supply 

6. How the government waged war against disease in the 

Panama Canal Zone 

The class should also form a health board and 
organize a department of health with a health com¬ 
missioner and a number of inspectors and employees. 
This organization can then assist in promoting 
better health at school and in the community. The 
members can prepare short health talks, posters, 
health creeds, bulletins, etc. 

Talk to the Class. Prepare a two-minute talk 
on one of the following topics: 

1. Why the hands, mouth, nose, and ears should be kept clean 

2. Fresh air in the schoolroom 

3. Ventilation of the sleeping-room 

4. Dangerous disease carriers 

5. “ Swat the fly ” 

Making a Health Creed. Finish the following 
creed and make a neat copy in your notebook: 

I will keep my face and body clean. 

I will eat wholesome food, take plenty of exercise, and sleep 
eight hours every day. 

I will wash my hands thoroughly every time before eating. 


92 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 



Making a Poster. Make a poster similar to the 
one shown on this page. Choose some important 
statements to put on it. 

Two-minute Talk. Prepare a talk on the sub¬ 
ject, What I can do to prevent the spread of colds? If 
you prefer, you may choose some other health 
topic. 

Writing a Letter. Write a letter to the depart¬ 
ment of health of your city or town asking for any 
bulletins it may have for free distribution. Address 
it to the health commissioner. Be careful to use 
good form and style. The teacher will mail the 
best letter. 




ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 93 

Reports of Committees. In preparing your re¬ 
ports for the class, you should make an outline — 
thus: 

I. The board of health 

1. How it is chosen 

2. Number of members 

3. Duties 

4. Officers employed by it 

The chairman of each committee will address the 
class and tell the interesting facts his committee 
has been able to learn by inquiry, by visits to the 
library, or from bulletins. 

Making a Health Bulletin. This is itself an 
important project, and much care should be taken 
to make it interesting. When the work is completed, 
the bulletin should be read to the entire class. 
In planning the work, the following should be pro¬ 
vided for: short health stories, jokes, health rules, 
discussions of health topics, and cartoons. The 
health commissioner of the class should ask different 
persons to head committees to provide each kind of 
material. When each committee has prepared its 
articles for the bulletin, all the material should be 
assembled. 

Reports from the Class Department of Health. 

Each pupil who has been serving as an inspector 
should report orally to the class concerning what he 
has been doing for better health in the school. For 
example, he will tell what he can of the ventilation 
of the school building, the heating and cleansing of 
the rooms and halls, etc. 

A Debate. Be prepared to speak for or against 
the following : Resolved, that athletics is more impor- 


94 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


tant than the study of arithmetic. Prepare an out¬ 
line, or brief as it is called, and follow it carefully in 
speaking. For example, your outline may begin 
in this way: 


I believe that athletics is more important than the study of 
arithmetic, for — 

1. Athletics will help to develop a strong body, and a strong 

body is necessary to success. 

2. One can get along with very little arithmetic. 


Finish the outline and make sure that each state¬ 
ment is correct. In order to give emphasis, men¬ 
tion your strongest point last. 

Writing a Letter. Write to the Red Cross branch 
in your city asking it to send you a representa¬ 
tive to speak to you on some health topic. If you 
prefer, write to the Tuberculosis Society making a 
similar request. 

Preparing a Play. Write a play to be given be¬ 
fore your class in the concluding program of the 
health campaign. Work out the following idea or 
a similar one. Mr. Careless and Mr. Overwork are 
engaged as partners in business. They work very 
hard, take no exercise, are careless about ventilat¬ 
ing their office, and do not even eat suitable lunches. 
They become very rich in the course of time, but 
along comes the villain Tuberculosis (consumption) 
and lays hold on them. They struggle with the 
villain, but are almost overcome, when along comes 
a good-health hero who by his wise counsel and assist¬ 
ance helps to overcome him by helping them to 
ventilate their office, take exercise, etc. 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 95 

II. THE PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE 

Up to this time you have been considering modi¬ 
fiers as single words. Now you are to learn that a 
modifier may be a group of words. Observe the 
following sentences: 

1. Wealthy men often contribute generously to a good cause. 

2. An American citizen should be protected both at home and 

abroad. 

If the writer or speaker wishes to vary his lan¬ 
guage, he can make a group of words do the work of 
wealthy, generously, or American. 

1. Men of wealth often contribute with generosity to a good cause. 

2. A citizen of America should be protected both at home and 

abroad. 

A group of words that modifies a substantive is 
called an adjective phrase. 

A group of words that modifies a verb, verbal, 
adjective, or adverb is an adverbial phrase. 

Tell what word each phrase in the following sen¬ 
tences modifies: 

1. The people of Japan are very industrious. 

2. The soldiers retreated across the bridge. 

3. For many years cotton seeds were removed by hand. 

4. The stories about Washington are very interesting. 

5. Life on the sea is dangerous. 

6. A majority of the people in 1800 were farmers. 

7. Greece with her clear skies and rocky coast is indeed a lovely 

land. 

8. In Spain many of the people are uneducated. 

9. A reception for the new minister was held in the church parlor. 

10. The boy agreed with me. 

Observe that each phrase begins with a word 
that is followed by a substantive. The word that 


96 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


introduces the phrase is called a preposition and the 
substantive is called the object of the preposition. 
By referring to the phrases in the sentences above, 
you will notice that prepositions include such words 
as of, from, in, on, across, above, over, with, and the 
like. 

A phrase introduced by a preposition is called a 
prepositional phrase. 

The substantive, or object, in the phrase may have 
its own modifiers, but remember that the whole 
phrase serves as a single modifier in the sentence. 

1. We waded across the deep pool. 

2. The hunter climbed to the top of the Mountain. 

In the first sentence deep belongs to pool and de¬ 
scribes it; in the second the noun top is modified by 
the phrase of the mountain. When one phrase is 
thus joined to another, they make up a complex 
phrase. 

Exercise 1 

Find the prepositional phrases and tell what each 
modifies. State whether each is adjectival or ad¬ 
verbial. 

Name the preposition and find its object. 

1. During the next morning I stayed at his house. (During is 

a preposition.) 

2. At last the horse started toward the house. 

3. The cave on the bank of the river is called Cliff Cave. 

4. Some of the interesting points we could not mention. 

5. From the top of a high building we viewed the falls in the 

river. 

6. On the American side there is another elevator which takes 

you down under the “ Maid of the Mist.” 

7. The falls at Niagara is the most beautiful scene in America. 

8. The place is one mass of electric lights. 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 97 


9. On this sight-seeing car we took a guide to tell us about 
each place. 

10. We took the trolley from Buffalo to Niagara. 

11. From the roof of the house we saw the valley for many miles. 

12. My grandfather lives in a village in Missouri. 

13. We started to his home early in the morning. 

14. The man in the blue uniform is the city marshal. 

15. Late in the evening we heard the fire engine coming down 

the street. 

16. The call to the colors took many young men from their 

homes. 

17. To our great surprise we saw a fire about two blocks from us. 

18. The next morning we found nothing of the house but the 

kitchen sink. 

19. The effort of the mayor could not stop the mob’s activity. 

20. In the rear of the main building are sunken gardens. 

21. Our automobile skidded into a telephone pole and was 

wrecked by the jolt. 

22. Because of the oil the fire spread with great rapidity. (Con¬ 

sider because of as a compound preposition.) 

23. In the meantime the fire had attracted several thousand 

people. 

24. We started about nine o’clock and went to the dock to meet 

our friends. 


CHAPTER NINE 


I. A SAFETY-FIRST CAMPAIGN 

Stop ! Look ! Listen ! These words posted 
at every railroad crossing have probably saved 
thousands of lives. Railroad and street-car com¬ 
panies have for years been conducting a safety 
campaign. This work, however, is no longer con¬ 
fined to them. Many industrial and commercial 
concerns have adopted the “ Safety First ” slogan. 
Public welfare departments also are advancing the 
work. 

“ Safety First ” should be everyone’s slogan, and 
it will be, when the public is properly educated as to 
the necessity for the prevention of accidents. The 
class might profitably conduct a campaign of this 
kind to discover the causes of accidents and to find 
out how to prevent them. 

Project IX. Conducting a “Safety-First” 
Campaign 

Planning the Work. The class president should 
appoint committees to investigate the following 
topics and report on them later: 

1. What railway companies are required to do to prevent acci¬ 

dents 

2. Traffic regulations of your city or town 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 99 


3. Building inspectors and their duties 

4. Boiler inspectors and their duties 

5. Elevators and regulations for running them 

6. Where accidents most frequently occur 

The class may work individually or as a whole to 
carry on a campaign for education by making 
“ safety-first ” slogans, posters, two-minute talks, 
bulletins, etc. 

Talk to the Class. Prepare a two-minute talk 
on the subject, What I can do to prevent accidents. 

Making a Page of Safety Rules. Write several 
rules for the prevention of accidents. Be careful 
to state them in good English. If you prefer, you 
may add to the following: 

Keep the garbage-can covered. 

Learn to swim and teach others to do so. 

In crossing the street look to the left until you reach the center 

of the street and then look to the right. 

Writing a Letter. Write a letter to the Depart¬ 
ment of Public Welfare of your city or town and 
ask for any literature it may have on the subject of 
accident prevention. First state what your class 
is doing and follow this with the request. 

Making “ Safety-First ” Posters. Use large 
sheets of paper and with water colors or crayolas 
make a simple drawing to show an accident about 
to occur — for example, a child trying to cross the 
street in front of a speeding automobile. What¬ 
ever the design, make suitable slogans or important 
statements to accompany the drawing. 

Two-minute Speeches. Prepare a talk on the 
subject, How to have a safe and sane Fourth of July . 
Suggest something that will take the place of pow¬ 
der, pistols, rockets, etc. 


100 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


Making a “ Safety-First ” Bulletin. The bulle¬ 
tin will probably consist of slogans, little stories of 
accidents through carelessness, jokes, and explana¬ 
tions of how to prevent accidents. The work may 
be divided among different committees, or each 
pupil may be asked to make a bulletin. It will 
probably be better, however, to have a slogan com¬ 
mittee, a story committee, a poster committee, etc. 
Each committee can then choose carefully the ma¬ 
terial that should be included. The stories should 
include such incidents as the following: 

1. My most serious accident 

2. An automobile accident 

3. A narrow escape 

4. How I practiced “ safety first ” 

5. An accident in alighting from a street car 

Reports of Committees. The president of the 
class should ask the chairmen of the various com¬ 
mittees to report on the subjects that were assigned 
when the project was first taken up. Important 
information should be entered in the notebooks. 


II. THE CLAUSE 

Besides word and phrase modifiers, expressions 
containing a skeleton — a subject and predicate — 
may be used. 

1. A wise man saves his money. 

2. A man of wisdom saves his money. 

3. A man who is wise saves his money. 

The expression who is wise modifies man and is 
used like an adjective. The word wise and the 
phrase and clause in the sentences above are used 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 101 


in precisely the same way — namely, as adjectival 
modifiers. 

A clause is a group of words having a skeleton — 
a subject substantive and a predicate verb — and 
performing the work of a single modifier or a sub¬ 
stantive. 

A clause that modifies a noun or pronoun is an 
adjectival clause. 

1. The boy who works will succeed. 

2. The house where I was born is still standing. 

A clause that modifies a verb, an adjective, or 
an adverb, is an adverbial clause. 

1. Seven Americans fell dead when the British fired. 

2. As soon as the British could reach the village, they opened fire. 

(The clause modifies the first as, an adverb.) 

A clause that is used like a noun as subject, pred¬ 
icate nominative, or object, is called a substantive 
clause. 

1. That he would fail was certain. 

2. The result was that Wilson was elected. 

3. Roosevelt knew that the canal would be valuable. 

Exercise 1 

Find the subordinate clauses and tell how each is 
used. To what does each adjectival or adverbial 
clause belong? What word connects the clause to 
the word the clause modifies ? 

1. General Pershing, who was sent to France, is a very brave 

soldier. 

2. The opinion of the manager was that the boy would become 

a valuable clerk. 

3. A farmer reported that a strange man had come to him asking 

for shelter. 


102 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


4. The house that stands on the corner is the residence of the 

mayor. 

5. If the weather is fair to-morrow, we shall leave for our homes. 

6. The campaign failed because no one would furnish money 

to finance it. 

7. This was the heaviest blow that the allies had yet received. 

8. The greatest lesson that has come from the war is an ap¬ 

preciation of real brotherhood. 

9. This is the chair in which General Grant sat. 

10. The workman whose tools were thrown into the river moved 

to another city. 

11. Then came the time that tried men’s souls. 

12. Frank Dudley left home when he was but twenty years of 

age. 

13. Our new neighbors say that they like our city. 

14. On our way to the station we met several men whom we did 

not recognize. 

15. The old tree still lies where it fell. 

16. We climbed into an old launch which had been abandoned. 

17. While we were waiting for the train, a stranger came into 

the station. 

18. The big audience which had assembled to hear the bishop’s 

sermon patiently waited for the services to begin. 

19. The time which had been counted out on account of the 

accident delayed the game. 

20. I knew that the accident would happen. 

21. That I would succeed was believed by all. 

Analysis. Notice carefully the analysis of the 
following sentences, containing phrases and clauses: 
1. “ The chairman of the meeting told the story of the disaster.” 

This is a declarative sentence. The complete 
subject is “ The chairman of the meeting ”, of 
which “ chairman ” is the subject substantive and 
of the meeting ” an adjective phrase modifying 
“ chairman.” The complete predicate is “ told 
the story of the disaster ”, of which “ told ” is the 
predicate verb and “ story ” the object. The ad¬ 
jective phrase “ of the disaster ” modifies “ story.” 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 103 


2. “ The chairman, who presided at the meeting, told the story 
of the disaster.” 

This is a declarative sentence, containing a clause. 
The complete subject is “ The chairman who pre¬ 
sided at the meeting ”, of which “ chairman ” is the 
subject substantive and “ who presided at the meet¬ 
ing ” an adjective clause modifying “ chairman.” 
The complete predicate is “ told the story of the 
disaster ”, of which “ told ” is the predicate verb 
and “ story ” the object. The adjective phrase 
“ of the disaster ” modifies “ story.” 

3. “ That he had died was known by all.” 

This is a declarative sentence, containing a clause 
used as subject. The subject is “ That he had 
died ” and the predicate “ was known by all.” 
The predicate verb is “ was known ”, of which the 
phrase “ by all ” is an adverbial modifier. 

4. “ The truth is that he has deserted.” 

This is a declarative sentence, containing a clause 
used as a predicate noun. The complete subject is 
“ The truth ”, of which “ truth ” is the subject sub¬ 
stantive. The complete predicate is 11 is that he 
has deserted.” The linking verb is “ is ” and the 
predicate noun the clause “ that he has deserted.” 

5. “ I know that he will do the work.” 

This is a declarative sentence, containing a clause 
used as the object. The subject is “ I ” and the 
complete predicate “ know that he will do the 
work.” The word “ know ” is the predicate verb, 
and the object is the clause “ that he will do the 
work.” 


104 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


Exercise 2 

Analyze the following sentences: 

1. The superintendent, who came to our school for a short 

visit, took time for a reception. 

2. The gentleman whom you met is a foreigner. 

3. That he could not succeed was evident. 

4. The chairman reported that he had collected the dues from 

the members of the society. 

5. The time when the races should begin had been announced 

by the judges. 

6. No one who knows a good car will buy this one. 

7. Washington, whom the people chose for President, com¬ 

manded the respect of all the people. 

8. The man for whom the house was built has just died. 

9. The belief that stars are suns is held by some scholars. 

(The clause is in apposition with “ belief.”) 

10. The story of his adventure is what the children like. 

11. The man that lives near me is my friend. 


CHAPTER TEN 


I. A READING CLUB 

Books are your silent companions. If you learn 
to love them, you will spend many a happy hour 
with them. 

What books have you read in other grades? 
Which did you like best ? Would you enjoy reading 
other good stories? If so, you will be interested 
in forming a reading club for the purpose of getting 
acquainted with new books and gaining pleasure and 
knowledge. 

Project X. Conducting a Reading Club 

Planning the Work. Although the class is already 
organized, you will probably find it desirable to 
form the reading club as a separate society with 
different officers. You will need to elect a president 
to conduct the affairs of the club, and a librarian 
to keep the booklist and to make a record of the 
books each pupil reads. The club may be divided 
into groups, if necessary, for the purpose of ex¬ 
changing books. Committees also may be appointed 
for such work as may be planned by the club. 

As far as possible, the club should work out its 
own plan. The following suggestion, however, 
may serve to make the task easier: First, choose 
a list of the most interesting books in both your 


106 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


school library and the public library. Second, pro¬ 
vide certificates or buttons to be given as a reward to 
each member of the club who reads three or five 
books. Begin the reading of a suitable book at once . 

The following is a suggestive list of books. The 
club should add many others. Perhaps the president 
or librarian will write a letter to the public library 
asking for a list of books which they can recommend 
for your grade. 

Little Women — Alcott 

Boy's Life of Edison — Meadowcraft 

Uncle Tom's Cabin — Stowe 

The Jungle Book — Kipling 

Black Beauty — Sewell 

George Washington — Scudder 

Birds' Christmas Carol — Wiggin 

Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm — Wiggin 

Boys’ Life of Grant — Nicolay 

Robinson Crusoe — Defoe 

An Old-Fashioned Girl — Alcott 

Daddy Longlegs — Webster 

Pollyanna — Porter 

Evangeline — Longfellow 

Robin Hood — Howard Pyle 

Little Lord Fauntleroy — Burnett 

Little Men — Alcott 

Men of Iron — Pyle 

Christmas Carol — Dickens 

The Man without a Country — Hale 

Wonder Book — Hawthorne 

Paul Jones — Seawell 

David Copperfield — Dickens 

Beautiful Joe — Saunders 

Huckleberry Finn — Twain 

Swiss Family Robinson — Wyss 

Hans Brinker — Dodge 

The Story of a Bad Boy — Aldrich 

Jo's Boys — Alcott 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 107 


Eight Cousins — Alcott 

The Oregon Trail — Parkman 

Deeds of Daring Done by Girls — Moore 

Bob, Son of Battle — Ollivant 

Captain January — Richards 

Gulliver’s Travels — Swift 

In the Days of Queen Victoria — Tappan 

Biography of a Grizzly — Thompson-Seton 

Polly Oliver’s Problem — Wiggin 

Talk to the Class. Tell the class the titles of some 
good books you have read recently. Give the name 
of the author of each. Which did you like best? 
Tell the class something in it that interested you. 

Writing a Letter. Write a letter to the librarian 
of the public library asking for a list of interesting 
books suitable for your grade. Tell him about the 
formation of your reading club and your plan for 
working out the project. The best letter should be 
mailed. 

Talk to the Class. With the class as a reading 
club, and the president or librarian in charge, make 
a two-minute talk on one of the following: 

1. How to find a certain book in the library 

2. The proper care of books 

3. Making the club acquainted with the rules of the library 

4. How to make a book-holder 

Notebook Work. The club will now make up 
its permanent reading list. Each member should 
suggest some interesting titles. These should be 
placed on the blackboard, and if approved by the 
teacher, entered in the notebook. 

Talk to the Class. Perhaps you are now ready to 
report on one of the interesting books in your list. 
If so, rise and say, “ Mr. President, I move that the 


108 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


Reading Club hear reports on the books that have 
been read.” If this motion is passed, the club will 
be ready for the work. You should then address 
the president again, saying, “Mr. President, I should 
like to give a report on Black Beauty, by Sewell.” 
Do not attempt to tell all the details. Merely fol¬ 
low a simple outline such as the following: 

1. The title of the book 

2. The author’s name 

3. The chief characters 

4. A very brief outline of the story 

There are certain striking incidents or situations 
which you will wish to give because they have im¬ 
pressed you most. Try to tell about them in a way 
so interesting that your classmates will wish to read 
the book. 

Writing a Letter. Write a letter to a friend who 
is sick or has left school to work, telling him about 
some interesting book you are reading. 

II. “ LIKE ” AND “ AS IF ” 

In the following sentences like is used cor¬ 
rectly : 

1. George looks like his father. 

2. Like the lion, the tiger is a savage beast. 

3. We saw his giant figure planted like a tower. 

4. Like his father, John is a shrewd business man. 

In these sentences as and as if are used correctly. 
Like would be incorrect : 

1. Henry speaks as if he were angry. 

2. Treat others as you wish to he treated. 

3. It looks as if it would rain to-day. 

4. Alice did the work as she was told to do it. 


ENGLISH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 109 


If you compare these groups of sentences care¬ 
fully, you will find that like is not used to connect 
one statement or clause with another. As if or as 
should be used in such cases. Like introduces a 
phrase, while as if or as introduces a clause. 

Observe that when a pronoun follows like it should 
be one of the following forms : me, us, him, her, them, 
or whom. These sentences illustrate this point: 

1. Like him, Henry is a graduate of the university. 

2. The child looks like her. 

3. Like us, they are in great distress. 

The following sentences contain like correctly 
used. Read them several times until you are familiar 
with the correct use: 

1. Charles can climb like a squirrel. 

2. The man acted like a spoiled child. 

3. Like his predecessor, Mr. Trainor is extremely obliging. 

4. The reformer never thinks like other people. 

5. The people rushed to the depot like a great wave of the sea. 

6. The events of these days seem like a dream. 

7. Like him, John feared the storm. 

8. We do not live like them. 

The following sentences contain as if and as used 
correctly. Study them carefully. 

1. The angry man looks as if he wanted to fight. 

2. I felt as if I were the poorest man in the world. 

3. The reformer never thinks as other people do. 

4. The clouds rolled up as if they were waves of the sea. 

5. The President refused to do as others had done. 

6. We do not live as they do. 

7. Mary looks as if she were going to faint. 

8. George acts as if he were keenly disappointed. 

9. It looks as if it would snow. 

10. They did not come as the conqueror comes. 


110 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


Exercise 1 

Choose the proper word in each sentence; then 
compare with those in the special drill. 

1. Do (like, as) the teacher told you. 

2. Death comes (like, as) a thief in the night. 

3. Helen looked (like, as if) she were sick. 

4. The tramp acted (like, as if) he were insane. 

5. (Like, as) a wild beast, the Emperor fought his enemies. 

6. Charles looks (like, as) his father. 

7. The pupils laughed and shouted (like, as if) they had heard 

good news. 

8. Arnold acted (like, as if) a traitor. 

9. It seems (like, as if) the minister wanted to please his congre¬ 

gation. 

10. Lincoln, (like, as) Washington, was a true patriot. 

11. His face was red (like, as if) fire. 

12. The boys fought (like, as if) tigers. 


PART TWO 

ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 
























CHAPTER ELEVEN 


I. THE SCHOOL PAPER 

When writing for the school paper or the class 
magazine, you should keep in mind the reader. 
You will find it a real pleasure to interest and enter¬ 
tain him. Of course the first thing to do is to select 
a good subject, preferably one that is familiar to 
you, but not to him. There are many such, some 
of which will be mentioned in the following pages. 
Perhaps you can think of a great many and will be 
willing to write them on the board for the benefit 
of other pupils. For example, if you have taken 
vacation trips you have in mind interesting scenes 
or objects worth describing; or if you are making 
something in the shop or laboratory, your school¬ 
mates would like to hear about it. Having decided 
upon an interesting subject, you will next prepare 
a simple outline, or list, of your details in the order 
in which you wish to tell them. 

If you wish to describe scenes or objects, you must 
observe them closely and try to remember the es¬ 
sential details. Your problem, of course, is to make 
others imagine what you yourself have seen. Some¬ 
times it will be sufficient to tell in the simplest way 
what a thing looks like. This will perhaps be enough 
in describing interesting things you have made in 
the workshop. Here you should ask yourself, Is 


114 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


the impression clear ? If so, the work has been well 
done. There are times, however, when you wish 
to make others see and enjoy scenes that you have 
observed. In this case it may be necessary to tell 
how the thing differs from others, or is like them. 
This means that you should not set down a mere 
list of details. It is also essential in many cases 
to put as much movement into the work as possible. 
The following is a short description of a scene 
in which the writer has introduced a good deal of 
movement, thus making his work somewhat more 
dramatic: 

Seeing the Country from a Car on the Lake Line 

Come with me for a ride. A large open car swings rapidly 
around the corner and pauses barely long enough to pick us up. 
Now we are off. Hardly have we taken our seats when we fly 
past a beautiful little village of twenty or thirty houses. Then 
come gardens, fields, a road, and a brief stop to take on pas¬ 
sengers. And what are those groups of houses nestled away on 
the hills? Oh, nothing but two more villages, Meridian and 
Vineta, where many clerks, office men, and teachers have come 
to live. Here is a train hurrying over the concrete bridge above 
our heads, and now we have passed it by. What fine fields of corn 
and what pretty cottages here and there! 

“ Overland,” shouts the conductor, as he brings his car to a 
stop. A freckle-faced lad, with his pockets full of green apples, 
climbs to a seat, struggling with a basket of potatoes. As the 
conductor gently helps a country girl to a seat, the car moves 
on again. 

That beautiful building, standing like an old castle on the 
hill, is the Midland Country Club, and these the wonderful 
pounds and golf links. The fine old mansion in the distance 
is the home of a gentleman who got more than his share of wealth 
in the city and has come to the country to enjoy life. That tall 
tower before us stands on the hill overlooking Cr6ve Coeur Lake. 
Suddenly our car darts into the woods, and now we have reached 
the end of our journey. 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 115 


Project XI. Holding a Writers’ Contest 

Planning the Work. The class may be divided 
into groups according to the kind of work that is to 
be done — that is, there may be a group for each 
of the following: 

1. Incidents and descriptions 

2. Poems 

3. Plays 

4. Descriptions of interesting work in other classes 

A chairman should be appointed for each group. 
Every pupil should take part in the contest. When 
all the contributions are received, they should be 
read and considered in the group, and the best work 
should then be submitted to the class for a final 
decision. The best one or two articles submitted 
by each group should be sent to the school paper. 
In case there is no school paper, the class should 
make a magazine of its own, and these articles 
should be used for the first issue. 

Selecting Suitable Subjects. The following is a 
list of subjects suitable for descriptions of scenes 
or objects. Perhaps your class will prefer to make 
its own list. In this case the best subjects suggested 
by the pupils should be written on the blackboard: 

1. A beautiful school-garden 

2. A scene from my study window 

3. Looking down a crowded street 

4. An interesting building 

5. Seeing the city from a boat on the river 

6. A Boy Scout’s camping outfit 

7. A scene in the harvest field 

8. A rare coin or coin collection 

9. A huge snow fort 

10. A coasting scene 


116 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


11. Something useful I have made 

12. Something I have made in the science room 

13. My first view of the lake 

14. Looking down the mountain 

Your classmates will be interested in hearing 
about the work you are doing in other classes and 
departments. You are probably doing something 
that is new to them, something in the laboratory 
or the shop. Prepare an interesting report on your 
project. 

Every boy and girl enjoys visits to points of in¬ 
terest, trips through factories and shops, and little 
excursions with the geography or social-studies 
teacher. Has your teacher taken you to the art 
museum, the post office, a large factory, or other 
places of importance? If so, a report of the visit 
will be interesting to those who could not go. Try 
to make your account so attractive that the class 
will vote to have it printed in the school paper. 

1. An interesting trip with the science teacher 

2. A visit to the “Zoo” 

3. A trip through a factory 

4. A visit to a large newspaper plant 

5. A trip with the Hiking Club 

6. A visit to the orphans’ home 

7. A trip to a point of historical interest 

8. A trip with my school club 

Talk to the Class. Prepare to give a two-minute 
talk in which you describe some interesting scene 
or place you have visited on your vacation trip. 
Make an outline containing the most important 
things you wish to say. Arrange the details in the 
proper order. Think the picture through and, with 
the foregoing illustration before you, try to put move- 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 117 

ment into your work. After you have given your 
talk, let the class tell you whether they got a clear 
picture of the scene and whether they enjoyed it. 

Written English. Select one of the foregoing 
subjects or a similar one and write an article for 
your school paper. Introduce as much movement 
in your description as possible. First write a rough 
draft and later rewrite it with pen and ink. When 
you feel that you have done your best, submit it to 
the chairman of your group. 

Talk to the Class. Prepare a talk on an interesting 
project in science, household arts, or manual training. 

1. Connecting a telephone 

2. Making a bird book 

3. Making an airplane 

4. Making a bulletin board for the school 

5. Making candy 

6. Re-making an old hat 

7. Doing “ order ” work (work for pay) 

Writing a Letter. Write a letter to a pupil who is 
absent on account of sickness, or who has left school, 
and tell him about an interesting trip you have taken, 
or of some interesting project your class has under¬ 
taken. 

Talk to the Class. Prepare a two-minute talk 
on an interesting trip you have taken to the park, 
the “ Zoo ”, a newspaper plant, a factory, or other 
places of interest. 

Written English. Write an interesting account of 
a trip you have taken to some place of interest 
with your class. Submit it to your group for use 
in making up material for the school paper. 

Class Exercise. When each group has selected 
the best articles for the paper, these should be read 


118 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


to the class. Perhaps some valuable corrections 
will need to be made. The class should finally decide 
by vote just which articles to submit to the paper. 

II. SENTENCES CLASSIFIED AS TO FORM 

The Simple Sentence. You have already been 
taught to classify sentences as declarative or inter¬ 
rogative, exclamatory or non-exclamatory. They will 
now be classified on the basis of their form. Note 
the form of the following sentences: 

1. Columbus wished to find a new route to India. 

2. The regiment marched through the principal streets of the 

city. 

3. In every village there were many secret-service men. 

4. In the midst of all his disappointments came the news of 

Arnold’s treason. 

How many skeletons has each of these sentences? 
Every sentence must have at least one subject sub¬ 
stantive and one predicate verb. Here are the 
skeletons of the sentences above: 

1. Columbus wished 

2. regiment marched 

3. men were 

4. news came 

You will observe that there is but one skeleton 
for each of these sentences. A sentence that has 
but one skeleton is called a simple sentence. 

A simple sentence may have a compound subject 
that is, two substantives that are coordinate. 
By coordinate we mean that they have the same 
use in the sentence. 

1. Webster and Clay were great orators. 

2. John and he made an investigation of the matter. 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 119 


3. The Governor of the State and many very prominent men 
came to the celebration. 

You will readily see that Webster and Clay play 
the same part, both being the subject of were. John 
and he are the two words that are used alike in the 
second sentence, and governor and men in the third. 
The skeletons of the sentences are as follows: 

1. Webster and Clay were 

2. John and he made 

3. governor and men came 

The predicate may be compound. Observe the 
following sentences: 

1. The Siberian Railway was begun in 1891 and completed in 1905. 

2. Henry drew water and made a fire. 

The skeletons of these sentences are as follows: 

1. Siberian Railway was begun and completed 

2. Henry drew and made 

Both subject and predicate may be compound. 
Here is still but one subject and one predicate, 
though each is double. 

1. China and Japan raise and export rice. 

2. Germany , Austria , and Turkey raised and equipped large 

armies. 

3. Stock and grain are raised and sold in Illinois. 

It is important that you should not mistake a 
compound subject or a compound predicate for two 
skeletons, or predications. 

The Compound Sentence. As you have seen, a 
compound subject or compound predicate may be¬ 
long to a simple sentence. If, however, you join 
two or more independent assertions, the case is 
different. You then have two or more skeletons — 


120 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


two or more assertions that have the same use. 
One of these is just as independent as the other, 
for none depends on any other for its meaning. 
Read the following sentences and see whether you 
can determine the different thoughts — the groups 
of words that go together: 

1. The discovery of gold in California attracted the attention 

of the world, and people flocked to that state in great 
numbers. 

2. Madison was anxious for peace, but the Republican leaders 

favored war. 

3. The people must provide for education, or the nation will 

become corrupt. 

4. We had stepped into the open, for the rain had ceased to fall. 

5. The reason for his strange actions no one has ever learned, 

but all supposed him to be insane. 

6. James has not been taught Spanish, neither does he wish 

such instruction. 

The foregoing assertions that are united in the 
examples above may be separated into independent 
sentences. 

1. The discovery of gold in California attracted the attention 

of the world. People flocked to that state in great numbers. 

2. Madison was anxious for peace. The Republican leaders 

favored war. 

3. The people must provide for education. The nation will 

become corrupt. 

4. We had stepped into the open. The rain had ceased to fall. 

5. The reason for his strange actions no one has ever learned. 

All supposed him to be insane. 

A sentence that is formed by uniting two or more 
independent assertions, or predications, is called a 
compound sentence. 

Conjunctions. You will observe that the members 
of a compound subject and of a compound predicate 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 121 


are connected by such words as and, or, but, 
both — and, either — or, neither — nor. Since these 
words join coordinate parts, they are called co¬ 
ordinate conjunctions. The coordinate conjunctions 
may connect words, phrases, clauses, or independent 
assertions — as, 

1. John and Henry. 

2. in the house and on the street. 

3. when the train arrived and while the passengers were getting off. 

4. The clouds began to form, and the wind came up. 

The connectives that are most frequently used 
to join independent assertions in the compound 
sentences are the following: 


and 

for 

but 

nor 

or 

neither 


Exercise 1 

1. Write five simple sentences having compound subjects. 

2. Write five simple sentences having compound predicates. 

3. Write five simple sentences having both compound subjects 

and compound predicates. 

4. Write six compound sentences having the independent 

assertions joined by the conjunctions mentioned above. 

Punctuation of the Compound Sentence. A period 
should follow every sentence unless it is interrogative 
or exclamatory. 

An automobile came to the door of the Orphans’ Home. The 
children ran out to see it. 

If, however, you wish to join independent predi¬ 
cations, using one of the conjunctions mentioned in 
the foregoing section, you should separate them 
with the comma. 


122 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


An automobile came to the door of the Orphans’ Home, and 
the children ran out to see it. 

Observe the following independent assertions, or 
predications. 

1. The enemy troops were unprepared for the attack. They 

have been putting every ounce of their strength into an 
attempt to stem the tide. 

2. America did not fail in the war. Her people were united 

for the great struggle. 

3. John has not bought a book. He has not borrowed one. 

You may unite the predications by supplying the 
proper connectives and the comma in each case : 

1. The enemy troops were unprepared for the attack, but they 

had been putting every ounce of their strength into an 
attempt to stem the tide. 

2. America did not fail in the war, for her people were united 

for the great struggle. 

3. John has not bought a book, neither has he borrowed one. 

If the connective is omitted, the semicolon should 
be used instead of the comma. 

1. The cover is torn from your book; you must buy a new one. 

2. The enemy troops made gains; they had heavy reinforce¬ 

ments. 

If the members of a compound sentence are long, 
you may choose between the comma and semicolon. 

The painter treated his subject from an ideal standpoint; and 
the character of the figure is more Christian than pagan. 

Again, if the members are long and themselves 
contain commas, you may use the semicolon. 

The submarine in question was officially registered as W 309; 
but to the world at large, and especially to the world that goes 
upon the face of the waters, she was known as Devil Fish. 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 123 


If the second member begins with so, use the semi¬ 
colon ; if it begins with and so, use the comma. 

1. The rain was cold; so we went into the house. 

2. We had no books, and so we could not amuse ourselves. 

The members of a compound subject or of a 
compound predicate are not generally separated by 
the comma unless a conjunction is omitted. It is 
necessary, then, to determine whether the sentence 
is really compound or merely has a compound sub¬ 
ject or predicate. If you find two independent 
predications, then use the comma. Note carefully 
this sentence: 

The captain of the regiment and a number of private soldiers 

went to the city. 

Should a comma be placed after regiment? If 
it is the end of an assertion, it should. But this 
is a simple sentence — only one predication. No 
comma is therefore needed. This is shown by 
writing the skeleton — thus: 

captain and soldiers went 

Again you should not mistake a phrase beginning 
with for for a clause. Such a phrase is not generally 
set off by a comma. 

The chief dispatched a number of policemen for the important 
work in that part of the city. 

No comma is needed here, for the expression be¬ 
ginning with the word for is a phrase — not a clause 
at all. 


Exercise 2 

Punctuate the following sentences. Perhaps some 
will not need any punctuation. 


124 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


1. The teacher would not eat in the lunch room but all the 

children were glad of it. 

2. A franchise confers a privilege but it does so under certain 

conditions. 

3. One of Romney’s first patrons was the Duke of Richmond 

and the income earned at his easel was from three to four 
thousand pounds a year. 

4. The artist crowned her luxuriant coiffure of iron gray with 

a great black hat and plume and set it off with a ribbon of 
pearly gray. 

5. Our schools must close for the next few days for numerous 

repairs will be made. 

6. The workman would not take money for his services neither 

would he accept any gifts from us. 

7. Many brave men suffered and died for the cause of freedom. 

8. Then came a pause in the speaker’s address and soon we 

observed his great embarrassment. 

9. I could not remember the stranger’s name nor could I 

inquire of any one. 

10. Happily my work was done for the manager had employed 

another man for the position. 

11. The car had passed the building it was too late to get off. 

12. You will have to wait outside I have lost my key. 

13. We have read many interesting stories but other good ones 

are left on the list. j* 

14. The boys had no wood with which to make a fire so they had 

to leave camp. 

Analysis. In giving the analysis of a compound 
sentence, take each member separately. Tell what 
the connective is, if there is one expressed. 

“ I could not learn his name, but he was a Spaniard.” 

This is a compound declarative sentence. The 
first member is “ I could not learn his name ”, and 
the second “ but he was a Spaniard.” The subject 
of the first member is “ I ”, and the complete predi¬ 
cate “ could not learn his name.” The predicate 
verb is “ could learn ”, and the noun “ name ” is 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 125 


the object. The subject of the second member is 
“he”, and the complete predicate “was a Span¬ 
iard.” The word “ was ” is the linking verb, and 
“ Spaniard ” is the predicate noun. The members 
are connected by the coordinate conjunction “ but.” 

Exercise 3 

Analyze the following sentences 

1. I was using a side-saddle then, but ever since this experience 

I have ridden astride. 

2. Ferocious dogs were the sentinels of every village, but we 

found an electric flasher a formidable means of defense. 

3. Never have I seen such a steep, slippery trail anywhere 

else; it was in the bed of a brook. 

4. Behind this chilly house lies nature’s loveliest garden; but 

no well-built stairway leads down to it. 

5. The rest of us did not fancy this bitter beverage, made from 

corn, so we kept on down the canyon. 

6. Pedro failed to appear with the cargo that night, and the 

next day there was no sign of him. 

7. Mr. Adams and I decided to start on alone, for our supplies 

were running low. 

8. Behind the early settlers were the forests, and in front lay 

the broad Atlantic. 

9. Either you must replace the glass, or I will punish you. 

10. My husband and I were in search of adventure; the English 
naturalist was bound for the forest to collect butterflies. 


CHAPTER TWELVE 


I. A CIVICS CLUB 

Much interesting material for speaking and writing 
may be found in local and civic matters. Perhaps 
you already know many important facts about the 
government of your city and community, some of 
which you have learned by observation. By talking 
with your parents and friends, or by reading books, 
you can learn many more, all of which your class¬ 
mates will want to know. 

You will no doubt wish to form a civics club for 
the investigation and discussion of local civic mat¬ 
ters. Your project will therefore be Forming a Civics 
Club . 


Project XII. Forming a Civics Club 

Planning the Work. The club should elect a 
president, secretary, and treasurer. The president 
should then appoint a director of public welfare, or 
the class may elect one. The director should appoint 
two committees — a welfare committee and a com¬ 
plaint committee. Recommendations concerning 
ventilation, safety while on the school grounds, care 
of school property, cleanliness, etc., should be made 
to the welfare committee. Complaints of all kinds, 
such as misconduct, injustice to pupils, smoking, etc., 
should be made to the complaint committee. 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 127 


The club will, of course, undertake a careful study 
of local government. The following is a list of ques¬ 
tions which will prove helpful in preparing talks on 
the different departments. A separate committee 
should be appointed to study and report on each 
group of questions. 

1. Who has charge of the work of keeping the streets in good 

repair? What is his salary? How is money raised to 
carry on this work? 

2. You have observed that good order is everywhere maintained. 

By whom is this work done ? Is there a policeman in your 
neighborhood? What are his duties? How are police¬ 
men chosen? Who has charge of the police force? Men¬ 
tion some acts of heroism you have known them to do. 

3. Notice that the parks and playgrounds are kept clean and 

beautiful. Who has charge of this work? What salary 
does he receive? 

4. Do you know the members of the Board of Education in your 

city or community ? What duties do they perform ? How 
can they raise money to build new buildings? Who is at 
the head of your schools? How is he chosen? 

5. Have you ever seen a big fire in which one or more buildings 

were destroyed? How many firemen did you notice? 
With what apparatus did they fight the fire ? Tell all you 
can about the Fire Department. 

6. What is the source of the water supply in your community? 

Have you a large water-works system? Who has charge of 
this work and what are his duties? 

7. Good health is so important that we have a department to 

look after the public interest in this regard — the Depart¬ 
ment of Health. Who has charge of this work? How 
does the department help to prevent epidemics of disease ? 

Talk to the Class. Prepare a two-minute talk 
on some topic that concerns the welfare of the school 
— such as, cleanliness of the school ground, care of 
school property, better provision for safety on the 
school grounds, etc. 


128 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


Writing a Letter. Write a letter to the Director 
of Public Welfare of your city, asking for bulletins 
on health and safety. 

Talk to the Class. Choose sides and debate the 
following question: Resolved, that our school should 
adopt the plan of having student officers. Prepare an 
outline, or brief as it is called, similar to the follow¬ 
ing: 

I believe that our school should have student officers, for — 

1. The pupils should be trained to become citizens. 

2. They should be willing to help their school. 

3. It will make the government of the school more demo¬ 

cratic. 

You should be careful to supply examples or proofs 
in support of your points. 

Written English. Write an interesting paragraph 
or two in answer to each of the following questions. 
Read your answers to the class. 

1. How does the city raise money to pay its expenses? 

2. Who fixes the tax rate? 

3. How do parks and playgrounds benefit the public ? 

4. What is done with the garbage in your community ? 

5. How does the public protect itself against fire ? 

6. How much does it cost to run the schools in your city? 

7. How are policemen selected? 

8. In what ways has the Board of Health benefited your com¬ 

munity? 

9. Where should playgrounds be located? 

10. Tell the story of a brave deed that a fireman has done. 

Writing a Letter. Write to the mayor of your 
city or town, asking for a copy of your city charter 
and other helpful booklets which the city may have 
for distribution. Tell him the pamphlets are needed 
by the school. 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 129 


Talk to the Class. Resolved, that the class should 
have a program consisting of music, addresses on civics 
topics, and readings. Discuss the foregoing resolu¬ 
tion and state just what topics should be given on 
the program. 

Reports of Committees. The chairmen of the 
different committees should now be given time to 
report on the questions assigned to them in the 
beginning of the project. Perhaps two or three 
recitation periods will be required for this work. 
Brief outlines of the main facts should be put in the 
notebooks. 

Writing an Invitation. Write an informal note 
inviting some officer of your city to address your 
assembly session on some important civic topic. 
If you prefer, write and ask some prominent citizen 
or friend to attend your class program. 

II. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE 
{Continued) 

Mistaking Adverbs for True Connectives. You 

have already seen that two or more independent 
assertions may be joined by the true connectives 
and, hut, for, or, nor, or neither to form a compound 
sentence. You have also observed that the asser¬ 
tions may be united without using a connective, in 
which case the separation between the clauses is 
made by inserting the semicolon. You are now 
to learn that there is a certain group of adverbs 
which seem to connect independent statements just 
like the true conjunctions mentioned above. This 
group includes however, nevertheless, still, then, there, 
now, indeed, yet, accordingly, consequently, so, moreover, 


130 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


and finally. The second independent assertion in 
a compound sentence often begins with one of these 
words. Now, however much these words look like 
conjunctions, they really modify, or tell something 
about, the verb in the second member. You, there¬ 
fore, punctuate such compound sentences as if 
they had no connective — by inserting the semi¬ 
colon. Of course the members could be written as 
independent sentences and followed by a period. 
Notice how the following sentences are punctuated : 

1. Our trip to the river was not altogether pleasant. However, 

I did enjoy the exercise. 

Our trip to the river was not altogether pleasant; how¬ 
ever, I did enjoy the exercise. 

2. Andrew could not speak fluently before his class. Never¬ 

theless, he made high grades. 

Andrew could not speak fluently before his class; neverthe¬ 
less, he made high grades. 

3. We fished during the morning. Then we went to the show 

in the afternoon. 

We fished during the morning; then we went to the show in 
the afternoon. 

4. The children ran to a neighboring barn. There they found 

shelter. 

The children ran to a neighboring barn; there they found 
shelter. 

5. The early settlers had at first been homesick. Now they 

were contented. 

The early settlers had at first been homesick; now they were 
contented. 

6. The Indians were robbed of their possessions. Indeed they 

were driven almost out of the land. 

The Indians were robbed of their possessions; indeed they 
were driven almost out of the land. 

7. We had planned to take the steamer Alton. Accordingly 

the next morning we got up early and prepared our lunch. 

We had planned to take the steamer Alton; accordingly 
the next morning we got up early and prepared our lunch. 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 131 


8. The applicant did not state his qualifications and experi¬ 

ence. Consequently he did not secure the position. 

The applicant did not state his qualifications and experi¬ 
ence ; consequently he did not secure the position. 

9. The audience waited many hours for the speaker to come. 

Finally a local politician consented to entertain them. 

The audience waited many hours for the speaker to come; 
finally a local politician consented to entertain them. 

10. We wished to learn something about the city charter. So 

our teacher sent us to the city hall to get a copy of it. 

We wished to learn something about our city charter; so 
our teacher sent us to the city hall to get copies of it. 

11. The Articles of Confederation did not meet the needs of the 

individual States. Moreover they did not provide for a 
single executive. 

The Articles of Confederation did not meet the needs of the 
individual States; moreover they did not provide for a 
single executive. 

If a true connective is used with one of these 
adverbs, the comma should be inserted instead of the 
semicolon. Such expressions include and so, and 
then, and accordingly, and finally, but still, and the 
like. 

1. We wished to learn something about our city charter, and so 

our teacher sent us to the city hall. 

2. Early in the morning it rained, and then it began to snow about 

noon. 

3. John had telegraphed for me to meet him at St. Joseph, and 

accordingly we set out early the next day. 

Mistaking Adverbial Phrases for True Connec¬ 
tives. Sometimes when two independent assertions 
are joined, the second begins with an adverbial phrase. 
These phrases are short and have about the same 
use in the sentence as the adverbs mentioned above. 
They are not true connectives; consequently you 
should not use the comma but the semicploii, Thp 


132 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


most common of these phrases are the following: 
at least, in fact, of course, at last, after all , for all that, 
in like manner , and a few others. Note carefully 
the punctuation of the following sentences and re¬ 
member that you may write and punctuate each 
example in two different ways, both being correct. 

1. The candidate will be elected. At least I think he will. 

The candidate will be elected; at least I think he will. 

2. In almost all our battles with the Mexicans we won. In fact 

we were successful in all. 

In almost all our battles with the Mexicans we won; in fact 
we were successful in all. 

3. Belgium had been gradually weakening. At last it gave up 

to the enemy. 

Belgium had been gradually weakening; at last it gave up to 
the enemy. 

4. The larger states voted for Hughes. After all Wilson was 

reelected. 

The larger states voted for Hughes; after all Wilson was 
reelected. 

5. Our team was stronger and better coached. For all that 

they were defeated. 

Our team was stronger and better coached; for all that they 
were defeated. 

6. Two men tried and failed. In like manner our hero failed. 
Two men tried and failed; in like manner our hero failed. 

When such adverbs and adverbial phrases modify 
something loosely or are merely thrown in, or paren¬ 
thetical, they should be set off by commas — thus: 

1. I could not, however, agree with him. 

2. The pupil was, in fact, unprepared. 

3. Russia was, at last, in the hands of her enemies. 

Combining a Series of Short Independent Asser¬ 
tions. A series of short independent assertions may 
be combined to form a compound sentence. A con¬ 
nective is generally used between the two last clauses. 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 133 


In this case the comma may be used to separate the 
clauses, but the rule is simpler if we use the semi¬ 
colon. Either punctuation, however, is correct. 

William joined the debating society, he practiced with the 
football team, and he was a member of the glee club. 

William joined the debating society; he practiced with the 
football team; and he was a member of the glee club. 

Unless there is some connection in thought be¬ 
tween the independent clauses, they should not be 
joined. Above all, you should remember that two 
thoughts which clearly do not belong together 
should not be united. Take, for example, this 
sentence: “ John was the best football player on 
our team, and his father was a minister.” Why 
should these assertions not be joined? Clearly 
there is no relation between them. Therefore, good 
usage would separate them entirely or subordinate 
one member. The problem may be solved as fol¬ 
lows : 

John was the best football player on our team. His father 
was a minister. 

John, whose father was a minister, was the best football 
player on our team. 


Exercise 1 

In the following sentences insert commas and 
semicolons wherever needed: 

1. The bird fluttered along the ground and one of its wings hung 

down as if it were broken. 

2. We had many pleasant days in Alton however we wished 

that we could be back in old St. Louis. 

3. We went on through the woods but found no more nests. 

4. We found no more nests so we had a drink from a little stream 

near by and then started for home. 


134 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


5. You must become an indispensable employee or your employer 

will discharge you. 

6. The sheriff and the jurors entered then the judge ordered the 

trial to begin. 

7. The clerk opened court and then the judge asked our teacher 

several questions. 

8. We should have enjoyed going to the park alone but the 

pleasure was increased by the presence of a jolly picnic 
party. 

9. You must leave my house you are a thief. 

10. Uncle Art is a Mason he holds a membership in a church 

club and he belongs to a scholarship fraternity. 

11. From there we could see the shore of the Illinois River at 

last we had come to the end of our journey. 

12. The water came tumbling down the rocks at a great speed 

nevertheless we waded into the stream for several feet. 

13. It rained to-day we did not go to school. 

14. We entered the cave and built a fire then we cooked lunch. 

15. The mouth of the cave was larger and in some places very 

irregular in shape. 

16. The manager was however extremely hard to please. 

17. Ruth’s father had not yet come down to breakfast and of 

course knew nothing of the accident. 

18. Having taken our trunks to the station we could not return 

to our rooms neither could we leave for the hotel. 

19. The man worked for several minutes to start the boat finally 

he succeeded. 

20. Holmes and Juxley were sincere in their doubts as to the 

value of the study of mathematics but these have been 
ably answered by Sylvester. 

21. Bricks cannot be made without straw nor can mental growth 

be achieved without individual effort. 

22. The study of mathematics will therefore draw out the in¬ 

dividual power. 

23. Our skyscrapers must disappear our great bridges and 

tunnels must be removed our banking systems must suffer 
greatly indeed our whole civilization must step back 
many centuries. 

24. English is indeed the most practical of all subjects of study. 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 135 


How to Punctuate Sentences Containing Yes 

and No. The words yes and no in replies are 
generally equivalent to clauses. You may, there¬ 
fore, use the semicolon to separate them from the 
rest of the sentence — thus : 

1. Yes; algebra has been of very great benefit to me. 

2. No; I cannot see what that has to do with this case. 

But some very prominent editors and scholars 
use the period after these words, especially if there 
seems to be a great degree of separation — thus : 

1. Yes. Who on earth can think otherwise ? 

2. No. You may proceed. 

Again, many writers separate them from the rest 
of the sentence by commas. In most cases, then, 
the writer may use any one of the three. 

1. Yes. It gives one the ability to solve problems. 

2. Yes; it gives one the ability to solve problems. 

3. Yes, it gives one the ability to solve problems. 

Sometimes it seems to give greater emphasis to 
follow yes and no with the period. 


Exercise 2 

Punctuate the following sentences: 

1. Can you read French yes I can read it. 

2. No you cannot go. 

3. Mary said Yes but Helen said No. 

4. Yes I disliked science. 

5. No there is nothing I would rather do. 

6. Do you consider him an honest lawyer yes I think he is. 

7. Do you think algebra and geometry should be retained in our 

schools yes because they have given me good mental train¬ 
ing. 


CHAPTER THIRTEEN 


I. A “ KNOW YOUR STATE " CAMPAIGN 

When preparing for Missouri's Centennial Cele¬ 
bration, some one said : “ My State is a grand old 
State, a beautiful State, and an instructive State." 
This could be said with equal truth of every State 
in the Union. These words will mean more to you, 
however, when you learn the history of your own. 

Can you answer the following questions: When 
were the first settlements made in your State? 
Where? What can you say of the struggles of the 
early settlers? When did your State enter the 
Union? Who was the first governor? 

No doubt you will find that you cannot answer 
all of these questions. Would it not, therefore, be 
well to study the history of your State? Some one 
will offer the following motion: Resolved , that we 
conduct a “ know your State " campaign . 

Project XIII. Conducting a “Know Your 
State" Campaign 

Planning the Work. The president should divide 
the class into six committees, each of which will 
investigate and report on one of these topics: 

1. Chief historical events 

(1) Early settlers 

(2) First cities founded 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 137 


(3) Date of admission 

(4) Leading historical events 

2. Notable men and women whose achievements have added 

luster to the commonwealth — teachers, statesmen, musi¬ 
cians, writers, artists, inventors, business men, and soldiers 

3. Commercial and industrial advantages 

4. State institutions—hospitals, reform schools, universities, etc. 

5. Historical buildings 

6. State parks, wonderful natural scenery, etc. 

As far as possible, your class should plan the work, 
but the following suggestions will be found helpful : 
Provide a historical program and invite another 
class to attend. Write a letter asking an old settler 
to be present and address your class. Plan also to 
dramatize interesting historical scenes and to pre¬ 
sent one or more tableaus. 

The various committees should begin their investi¬ 
gations at once. Much help can be obtained from 
histories of your State, and these should be found 
in your public library. 

Talk to the Class. Bring to the class kodak pic¬ 
tures of historical scenes, historical buildings, the 
capitol buildings, etc. These may be clipped from 
newspapers and magazines. Tell the class some 
interesting facts about each. Better still, if you 
have visited some of these places, describe them so 
vividly that your classmates will want to see them. 

Writing a Letter. Write a letter to your local or 
State historical society asking for a copy of any 
historical plays or pageants of the State which it 
has for distribution. Tell the society what your 
class is planning to do, and ask for any suggestions 
it may be able to give. 

Talk to the Class. Prepare a two-minute talk 
on some current event about your State officers, 


138 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


State institution, State laws, etc. Do not commit 
the language of the newspaper or magazine to mem¬ 
ory, but state the substance of each article in your 
own words. Make your own comment and your 
own opinions about the subjects you discuss. 

Reports of Committees. The reports of the differ¬ 
ent committees on the topics assigned in the be¬ 
ginning of this project should be given orally. Per¬ 
haps three or four lesson periods will be required 
for this work. With the class as a club and the 
president or some other pupil presiding, begin your 
report as follows: “ Mr. President, I wish to report 
on ‘ The Chief Historical Events of our State.’ ” 
Follow your outline carefully. 

Writing a Letter. Write to an old settler and ask 
him to be present at a historical program to be given 
by your class. Urge him to tell the class about 
some of his early experiences in the State. 

Giving a Historical Program. Arrange a program 
to be given on a definite date and invite another 
class to be present. If you prefer, you may give it 
before the assembly of the entire school or grade. 
The following program is intended to be merely 
suggestive: 

Our State History 

1. Song (preferably America ) 

2. Early history 

3. Some noted pioneers and what we owe them 

4. Song (preferably your State song) 

5. Our first and our present governor 

6. Talk by an old citizen 

7. Song 

Dramatization. Dramatize one or more of the 
most striking events in the history of your State. 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 139 


When presenting your play, use costumes in imita¬ 
tion of the dress of earlier times if possible. 

Tableau. Present an interesting picture of pioneer 
life. Remember that there will be very little, if 
any, speaking. Follow this with songs and dances. 

Write a Letter. Write a letter telling a class in 
the junior high school of some other city about your 
historical program. Ask them whether or not they 
are undertaking any projects of this kind. 


II. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE: 
ADJECTIVE CLAUSE 

The Relative Clause. You have learned that a 
clause may be used as a modifier in a sentence. 
When it is so used, it does not make an independent 
assertion but belongs to some other word in the sen¬ 
tence. A sentence containing a clause used as a mod¬ 
ifier or as a substantive is called a complex sentence. 

If the clause belongs to a noun or pronoun, it is 
an adjectival clause. The most common adjectival 
clauses are introduced by the relative pronouns who, 
which, what, and that, and by certain compound 
forms of these words, such as whoever, whichever, 
and whatever. Such clauses are called relative 
clauses. 

1. The man who is honest deserves praise. 

2. The man whom we met yesterday is the secretary. 

3. The house that stands on the comer is used for a recruiting 

station. 

4. The man from Centerville, who is very wealthy, bought the 

farm. 

5. A law that cannot be enforced should not be enacted. 


140 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


Suppose now that you take the subordinate clauses 
out of the sentences. They will appear as follows: 

who is honest 
whom we met yesterday 
that stands on the corner 
who is very wealthy 
that cannot be enforced 

To what noun does each of these clauses belong? 
In order to answer this question, you must know to 
what word each of the relative pronouns refers. 
In the first sentence who refers to man, and so the 
whole clause belongs to the noun man. The word 
to which a pronoun refers is called its antecedent. 

Sometimes a relative does not stand immediately 
after the word to which it refers. 

The rock to which they were directing their unseen course was 
marked by a jet of foam. 

The relative pronoun is not always the subject 
substantive of the clause in which it is found. It 
is necessary to take the clause out of the sentence in 
order to determine just how the pronoun is used. 
It will then be easy to determine whether it is the 
subject or object of something. 

Observe the following: 

1. The wagon in which sat two children was standing near the 

store. 

2. The soldier he struck fired his gun at him. 

3. The price that he paid was not high. 

If you take out the relative clauses, they will 
appear as follows : 

in which sat two children 
(whom) he struck 
that he paid 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 141 

The skeletons of the clauses are as follows: 

children sat 
he struck 
he paid 

It is clear that the pronouns are not a part of the 
skeleton in any case. In the first sentence which is 
a part of the prepositional phrase in which — a 
phrase that modifies sat. In the second the pro¬ 
noun must be supplied. As the skeleton is already 
complete, you need an object; so you supply the 
object form whom. In the third sentence the skel¬ 
eton is also complete and you can easily see that 
the pronoun is the object of paid. Often the relative 
is omitted when it is the object of the verb in the 
clause. 

Sometimes a clause is thrown into a relative in a 
parenthetical way. It is, of course, no part of the 
relative clause. 

The man who we supposed had committed the crime suddenly 
left town. 

Sometimes an adjective clause is introduced by a 
mere connective — a subordinate conjunction. 

1. The house where Lincoln was born still stands. 

2. The time when the crime was committed is not known. 

Exercise 1 

Select the principal clauses and the subordinate 
clauses. To what word does each clause belong? 
Find the skeleton of each clause. Is the relative used 
as subject or object of something? 

1. One of our graduates who was employed here ioi^ed. the 
officers’ training camp at Niagara Falls. 


142 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


2. The old lady in whose car we rode to church is my aunt. 

3. The effort that we made was not great enough to insure 

success. 

4. There is something attractive in the culture that is possessed 

by the average teacher. 

5. Those who do charitable work acquire a sense of responsi¬ 

bility which could have been obtained in no other way. 

6. The carriage in which the speaker rode was drawn by four 

milk-white horses. 

7. The contract he made could not be enforced. 

8. The house where the crime had been committed has since 

been left vacant. 

9. Dolly Winthrop was the good woman on whom Silas depended 

for advice. 

10. The excuse the child gave was not sufficient. 

11. The pastor of the church, with whom the board of trustees 

had held an interview, has not resigned. 

12. The child could do anything that any other boy could do. 

13. In the afternoon we went to see the Mississippi River, which, 

you know, is called the “ Father of Waters.” 

14. The moment had passed when a successful attack could be 

made. 

15. The ships that carry food and clothing to the people of 

Europe have just set sail. 

16. What have you heard about the camps in which our soldiers 

were trained. 

17. This is the man whom all are praising. 

18. The nation that started the war was anxious to stop it. 

19. Asia, which is the largest of the continents, is many miles 

distant. 

20. Do you remember the story he told on Christmas Day ? 

Analysis. Notice carefully the analysis of the 
complex sentence: 

“ The chair in which he sat was very old.” 

This is a complex declarative sentence. The 
complete subject is “ The chair in which he sat ”, 
of which “ chair ” is the subject substantive and “ in 
which he sat ” an adjective clause limiting chair.” 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 143 

The complete predicate is “ was very old ”, of which 
“ was ” is a linking verb and “ old ” a predicate 
adjective. 


Exercise 2 

Analyze the following sentences : 

1. The stranger who stood before him was tall and strong. 

2. We have an income that will keep us both. 

3. A man whose conscience is clear can enjoy life. 

4. The farm he bought should be developed in many ways. 

5. Mr. Brown is a man in whom the people have great confi¬ 

dence. 

6. The time when the people should unite their efforts has come. 

7. All that you need is money. 

8. Our city has a charter which provides for the initiative, 

referendum, and recall. 

9. The horse that won last year has since been sold to a stranger. 

10. There was no way by which we could make our escape. 

11. The house was completely hidden in a grove of trees that 

grew beyond the road. 

12. I threw the boy a rope, which he clasped tightly in both 

hands. 

Punctuation. Sometimes an adjective clause 
modifies a noun so closely that it could not be omitted 
without impairing or changing the meaning of the 
sentence. Such a clause may be called an essential 
clause. All others may be classed as non-essential 
clauses. The following sentences contain essential 
clauses: 

1. The man that works for the Brown Shoe Company is my uncle. 

2. The gun wh'ch he pointed at me was loaded. 

3. The horse that I wanted most had already been sold. 

The clauses above point out some particular 
thing in each case. Notice how the thought would 
be changed if they were omitted. 


144 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


The non-essential clause modifies a noun very 
loosely. It presents an additional idea. You may 
change such a clause to an independent assertion 
beginning with and. 

Napoleon, who undoubtedly wished to become a world con¬ 
queror, met defeat at Waterloo. 

The clause may be changed to read as follows: 

Napoleon met defeat at Waterloo, and he undoubtedly wished 
to become a world conqueror. 

The writer can readily feel that the non-essential 
clause is loosely attached. He should, therefore, 
set off such clauses by commas — thus: 

1. William R. Newell, who is a profound Bible student , believes 

in prophecy. 

2. I handed him a bucket of cold water, which he emptied into 

the tub. 


Exercise 3 

Determine which sentences need punctuation and 
supply commas only where they are needed. 

1. Cleveland who liked to hunt and fish was very popular with 

the people of New York. 

2. We are like swimmers who are fond of the tossing current. 

3. The soldier that deserts his post can be trusted in no other 

position. 

4. The merchant was assisted by his wife who would come to 

the store at almost any time during the day. 

5. We appeared at the door at which we began to knock re¬ 

peatedly. 

6. We sat on an old barrel which had once contained cider and 

ate our lunch. 

7. The door that opened into the hall was now shut fast. 

8. Many prosperous farmers live in the valley of the Missouri 

River which pours its floods of muddy water into the 
Mississippi. 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 145 


9. The ropes that held down our tent broke very suddenly. 

10. My father bought land that was fertile. 

11. Women who are really as intelligent as men have gained the 

right of suffrage. 

12. The lake on whose shores we delighted to camp now offered 

us no further attractions. 

13. In the opinion of men whose judgment can be trusted Liberty 

Bonds are a safe investment. 

14. Have you ever read the story of Ichabod Crane who was a 

pioneer schoolmaster. 

15. The attempt that we made failed to break the enemy lines. 


CHAPTER FOURTEEN 


I. A THRIFT CAMPAIGN 

The first page of a Thrift bulletin issued by a 
large bank is shown here. Note how the necessity 
for saving is emphasized in the second paragraph. 

Project XIV. Conducting a Thrift Campaign 

Planning the Work. Your school may have a 
bank of its own established for the purpose of teach¬ 
ing both thrift and banking. If so, you will have 
no difficulty in conducting your campaign. Your 
talks, posters, themes, letters, and advertisements 
will all center about the bank. Or, if your school 
does not have a bank, it may be teaching thrift 
through the sale of Thrift Stamps. Here also your 
speaking and writing will center about the sale of 
the stamps. Again, if your school has neither of the 
agencies mentioned, your class may organize a thrift 
society and elect a president and secretary to manage 
its affairs. You may be able to secure small metal 
banks from one of your local business houses. These 
can be used in saving small amounts of money at 
school, and your savings can later be deposited in 
the bank when you have saved one dollar or more. 

If it does not seem possible to follow any of the 
above plans, you can still very profitably conduct 
a thrift campaign merely through talks, themes, ad- 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 147 


THE EVOLUTION OF A MAN 



Prologue 

The baby — the boy — the youth — the man, then 
middle age — followed by old age, and all too 
often completing the circle back to the de¬ 
pendence of childhood. . . . 

The youth — the man —looking forward, does 
not realize that eighty-four out of every hundred 
men reaching the age of sixty-five become depend¬ 
ent on others for support. Sixty-five seems such 
a long way off — so much can happen — but 
time slips by. . . . 

Won't you profit by the experience of others? 
The caution of men who go from childhood 
dependence to old age dependence , and the 
advice of men who attain independence , and 
retain it in old age , is the same. ... you musi 
save. . . .save. . . .save. * . . 





148 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


vertisements, and letters. The project will result 
in much good to every pupil and the work will be 
more than worth the time it takes. 

The president of the class should appoint com¬ 
mittees to investigate and report on each of the 
following topics: 

1. Local savings banks, their rules, business forms, advertise¬ 

ments, etc. 

2. Thrift Stamps and Government Bonds 

3. Building and loan associations, purpose, plan of making loans, 

etc. 

These committees should begin their work im¬ 
mediately and be ready to report on a date to be 
definitely settled by the teacher. 

Talk to the Class. Prepare a two-minute talk 
on the subject Why I think a thrift campaign should 
he held. Study the advertisements of the local 
savings banks as you find them in newspapers and 
magazines. Make a list of the reasons you find 
and arrange your material in the form of an outline. 
Mention your strongest point last, as this will add 
emphasis. 

Making a Thrift Poster. With the help of your 
drawing teacher, design a poster somewhat like the 
illustration on page 149. Make an interesting sentence 
or two to accompany your drawing — for example, 
“ To-day is worth ten to-morrows. A savings account 
established to-day makes your future more secure.” 

Writing a Letter. Write a letter to the president 
of one of your local banks asking permission for 
your class to visit the bank. Your teacher will mail 
the best one. 

Talk to the Class. Look through the current 
numbers of magazines and newspapers and select 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 149 



TN the game of life the winning battery is 
A “ Thrift and Economy ” — the losing battery, 
“ Extravagance and Waste.” 

Saving money, like baseball, should be a 
National Game. 

You will make a “ hit ” with your family by 
opening a Mercantile Savings account to-day. 


150 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


several interesting articles on thrift. Read one of 
these carefully and tell its chief points to the class. 

Writing an Advertisement. Write an advertise¬ 
ment for your school paper. If your school has a 
bank, let your work apply to it. If not, design it 
for your thrift society. 

A good advertisement must: 

1. Attract attention 

2. Have a message 

3. Appeal to the customer’s needs 

4. Use appeals within the customer’s experience 

5. Make a personal appeal by the use of the pronoun you 

The following outline should generally be fol¬ 
lowed : 

1. A sentence or sentences to attract attention 

2. Brief description or explanation of the thing to be sold for the 

purpose of creating desire 

3. Illustrations or proofs 

4. A sentence or sentences of persuasion—as, “Write Your 

Declaration of Independence in a savings pass-book.” 

5. Sentence or sentences offering inducement to secure action 

— as, “Accounts opened and deposits made the first five 
days of July draw interest from July First.” 

Note carefully the advertisement on page 151. 
How closely does it conform to the foregoing outline ? 
Make your advertisement resemble this in plan: 

Reports of Committees. The committees ap¬ 
pointed earlier in the work of this project should now 
be given time to report orally to the class. Each 
chairman should arrange his material in the form 
of an outline, which he should follow in his dis¬ 
cussion. 

Making a Thrift Book. Every pupil should write 
a theme on the subject of thrift. These themes 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 151 



TTOUR forefathers won Independ- 
* ence on the field of battle against 
fearful odds — with weapons now 


obsolete. 


You fight for Independence in the 
field of industry. Your most valued 
weapon is thrift. 


Write your Declaration of Inde¬ 
pendence in a Mercantile Savings 
pass-book. 

Accounts opened and deposits made 
the first five days of July draw in¬ 
terest from July First. 
















152 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


should be read to the class and the best five or six 
chosen to be copied and bound together as a thrift 
book. 

Two-minute Talks. Invite another class to be 
your guests and entertain them with talks on thrift, 
using such subjects as My plan for saving money. 

Writing a Letter. Write to a friend asking him 
to visit your school bank or to be present at a pro¬ 
gram to be given by your class. 


II. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE: 

THE ADVERBIAL CLAUSE 

The Adverbial Clause. A subordinate clause 
may tell something about the verb in an independent 
assertion. In the following sentences the subordi¬ 
nate clauses belong to the verb : 

1. The people will rejoice when the war is over. 

2. The train left before we arrived. 

3. The child cried because he was hurt. 

4. We work while our children sleep. 

5. A man should live where he can find work. 

6. Conduct the exercises as you wish. 

7. I would scold the boy if he were here. 

8. The governor continued his address, though he was very ill. 

9. We whistled that we might appear brave. 

10. The man failed, since his money was taken from him. 

Every clause must have a skeleton — a subject 
substantive and a predicate verb. Always make 
sure that you have not mistaken a phrase for a 
clause. Test the expression by finding its subject 
and predicate; then find the word in the principal 
assertion to which the clause belongs. Note care- 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 153 


fully what word each clause modifies in the fore¬ 
going sentences. 

will rejoice when the war is over 

left before we arrived 

cried because he was hurt 

work while our children sleep 

should live where he can find work 

conduct as you wish 

would scold if he were here 

continued though he was very ill 

whistled that we might appear brave 

failed since his money was taken from him 

You have learned that independent clauses are 
connected by such conjunctions as and, but, for, or, 
nor, and neither. Since the clauses were coordinate, 
you were taught to call them coordinate conjunc¬ 
tions. You will observe that the clauses above are 
joined to the principal assertions by such connectives 
as when, while, where, before, because, as, since, if, 
though, and although. Since these conjunctives join 
subordinate assertions to the verb, they should be 
called subordinate conjunctions. 

Sometimes a subordinate clause belongs to an 
adjective or an adverb. 

The following sentences show their clauses in 
this construction. 

1. Culture is more precious than money. 

2. The carpenter did the work as well as any one could. 

If we write the clauses and the words to which 
they belong, we can see this more clearly. 

more precious than money (is) 
as well as any one could 


154 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


Often the verb must be understood in clauses of 
comparison. 

1. Iron is heavier than wood (is heavy). 

2. We were as happy as birds (are happy). 

Sometimes a connective is omitted, as you will ob¬ 
serve from these examples. 

Had he been here, he would have spoken. 

(If) he had been here, he would have spoken. 

Sometimes a sentence has a clause depending on 
it in a peculiar way — in an idiomatic way, which we 
need not analyze. 

The more he worked, the richer he became. (The is an adverb.) 

Exercise 1 

Select the adverbial clauses, and tell to what 
each belongs. 

1. Last summer we took a trip to a lighthouse while we were 

spending a few weeks on a small island in Green Bay. 

2. We caught no fish because we had no bait. 

3. After we had worked for several minutes, we succeeded. 

4. We had just finished breakfast when little Ruth entered. 

5. Our national guard was sent to France before winter came. 

6. All had to save that our armies might be fed. 

7. If we had taken lunch, we could have stayed much longer. 

8. Although both teachers and pupils wanted a holiday, the 

board of education would not grant it. 

9. Had the captain done his duty, his vessel might not have 

been lost. 

10. If I were you, I would do my work very faithfully. 

11. After we had left Jefferson Barracks, we walked a mile down 

the road towards a village. 

12. Put the book where I can find it. 

13. My mother invited the Sunday-school class to dinner, while 

I was absent on a vacation trip. 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 155 


14. We had lunch as soon as we arrived. 

15. Just before we left the park, we visited the large bird-cage. 

16. When Harold came, he brought his little three-year-old 

sister with him. 

17. Although James treated his sister with respect, he considered 

girls as trifling things. 

18. Felix felt revengefully toward his new enemy, though 

he apparently paid no attention to him. 

19. One day when Mr. Lyon was not at home, Felice brought 

Esther to task for her frivolity. 

20. The soldier had been sent home because he had received per¬ 

manent injuries in battle. 

21. The James brothers died as boldly as they had lived. 

22. Ellen spied a stranger while she was looking across the lake. 

23. The untrained soldier will rush in where the seasoned veteran 

would fear to go. 

24. Had our soldiers been trained sufficiently, we could have 

put them into the field sooner. 

Analysis. Notice carefully the analysis of these 
complex sentences containing adverbial clauses. 

1. “He had just arrived at the top of the hill, when his pack fell 

into the dust.” 

This is a complex declarative sentence. The 
complete subject is “ He ”, and the complete predi¬ 
cate “ had just arrived at the top of the hill, when 
his pack fell into the dust.” The predicate verb is 
“had arrived”, which is modified by the simple ad¬ 
verb “ just ” and the complex phrase “ at the top 
of the hill.” The predicate verb is also modified by 
the adverbial clause “ when his pack fell into the 
dust.” 

2. “ The donkey plodded along so slowly that he could go only 

a few miles in a day.” 

This is a complex declarative sentence. The 
complete subject is “The donkey”, of which the 


156 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


subject substantive is “ donkey.” The complete 
predicate is “ plodded along so slowly that he 
could go only a few miles in a day.” The predicate 
verb is “ plodded.” The adverbs “ along ” and 
“ slowly ” modify “ plodded.” “ Slowly ” is mod¬ 
ified by the adverb “ so ” and the adverbial clause 
“ that he could go only a few miles in a day.” It 
is perhaps more accurate to say that the clause 
modifies “ so slowly.” 


Exercise 2 

Analyze the following sentences: 

1. Although the man beat the donkey with his cane, the little 

animal would walk fast for only a few minutes. 

2. When Scott worked at his manuscript, he let nothing bother 

him. 

3. Since he could not find lodging in the village, he pressed on 

into the country. 

4. If the people of any country are united in their efforts, they 

can obtain their freedom. 

5. A man could not stay long in Cranford because he would 

find himself alone among many women. 

6. Before the old man died, he gave his son some very important 

advice. 

7. When spring comes, every one goes to the park. 

8. The lawn was so beautiful that even the old house was attrac¬ 

tive. 

9. As soon as they arrived, Marianne wrote a note to Charles. 

10. Had the governor signed the bill, it would have become a 

law. 

11. The merchant’s fortune was so large that he could easily 

give away great sums of it. 

Sentences Containing More than One Subordinate 
Clause. Sometimes a sentence contains more than 
one subordinate clause. These clauses may be 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 157 


coordinate — that is, they may play the same part. 
When so used, they are connected by a coordinate 
conjunction, such as and, but, for, or, nor, either — or, 
neither — nor, both — and, or not only — but also. 
The following are examples: 

1. When the train arrived and while it was standing at the station, 

the fight was going on. 

2. A boy should keep his manhood both while he is at home and 

when he is away. 

It is generally advisable not to make one sub¬ 
ordinate clause depend upon another subordinate 
clause, for this causes the whole sentence to appear 
too complex. Simplicity and clearness insure effec¬ 
tive expression. 

A compound sentence may have one, or both, of 
its members complex. Notice the following sen¬ 
tence, containing complex members: 

When the train arrived, the soldiers went to their tents; and 
after they had washed their hands and faces, they ate dinner. 

Observe that the members of such compound sen¬ 
tences are separated by a semicolon, because each 
contains a comma. This kind of punctuation 
greatly aids the eye in reading and the mind in 
grasping the thought. 

Punctuation. It is very important to fix in mind 
the correct punctuation of the complex sentence. 
This is particularly true of those that contain ad¬ 
jectival and adverbial clauses. 

An adverbial clause often stands first in the sen¬ 
tence, and in fact this arrangement gives the state¬ 
ment greater emphasis. Such clauses are generally 
called introductory or inverted clauses, and should 
be so designated. It is now almost the universal 


158 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


practice to set off these introductory clauses by a 
comma — thus: 

1. While the hoy was still gazing up the valley, the rumbling of 

wheels was heard in the distance. 

2. If he sang of a mountain, the eyes of all mankind beheld a 

mightier grandeur reposing on its bosom. 

3. When the President signed the hill, it became a law. 

The introductory adverbial clause is out of its 
natural order. If, however, it is changed to its 
normal position after the verb, the comma is gen¬ 
erally omitted. This is due to the fact that the ad¬ 
verbial clause is almost always an essential clause in 
ordinary writing and speaking — that is, it modifies 
the verb closely. 

1. The boy cried because he was cold. 

2. The soldier pressed forward though he feared the enemy 

greatly. 

3. Every man works that he may make a living. 

4. John is taller than I (am). 

Occasionally an adverbial clause is a loose modifier 
and is not essential to the expression of the principal 
thought. Such a clause may be named a non- 
essential clause. It presents an additional idea and 
is, of course, set off by a comma. The following 
sentences illustrate this construction : 

1. We came suddenly to a bend in the river, when we began to 

feel tired of a long journey. 

2. Our team could do nothing on Washington’s field, where we ex¬ 

pected to win a complete victory. 

Remember that introductory phrases are not 
generally set off by a comma. 

1. In the edge of a very dense forest we saw smoke arising, 

2. About thirty yards before us an Indian appeared, 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 159 


Exercise 3 

Insert commas and semicolons wherever they are 
needed. 

1. Father Adam had wept when he sold the donkey to Steven¬ 

son. 

2. When the attack had been completed the soldiers withdrew. 

3. We left the village very late at night when all was very quiet. 

4. She had two sons but the elder one an imbecile had died a 

year before. 

5. Before the speaker arrived a company of professional musi¬ 

cians played for the audience. 

6. The stranger came to see Felix too who had also come home 

for the holidays. 

7. Had he chosen to use his power unjustly the king might have 

greatly oppressed his people. 

8. One day when Henry was not at home his father brought 

him a very pretty pony. 

9. The boy that came to your door will be made manager of 

the concern if he will accept the position. 

10. I cannot go to the entertainment for I have made other 

plans. 

11. I know him he is a spy. 

12. Her former husband was a man in whom people had the 

greatest confidence. 

13. The carpenter while he was not a great workman could do 

ordinary work very well. 

14. Everything went well with them till they came to the edge 

of the forest when shots were heard. 

15. We had now given up hope because we had so often failed. 

16. Before we had written a single line the teacher ordered us 

to put away our paper and ink. 

17. After the unfortunate interview I went home better satisfied 

with my present work. 

18. We left when the news came. 

19. Our servant was so hungry that he stopped his work to eat 

his dinner. 

20. Although the way was rough to our feet we pressed on till 

the end of the day. 


CHAPTER FIFTEEN 


I. A SALES CAMPAIGN 

During the year your school will probably wish 
to raise money with which to buy something needed 
in its work — for example, books for the library, 
pictures for the different rooms, a victrola for the 
music department, etc. The motion-picture show 
or an entertainment will probably be the means 
used to accomplish this purpose, and a campaign 
for the sale of tickets to patrons and friends of the 
school will have to be made. Your class naturally 
will want to have a part in the work. Your project 
will therefore be Conducting a Sales Campaign , and 
you will be engaged in one of the following under¬ 
takings : 

1. Selling tickets for the school picture shows 

2. Selling tickets for the school entertainment 

3. Selling tickets for the football, basketball, or baseball season 

Project XV. Conducting a Sales Campaign 

Planning the Work. You should so thoroughly 
plan your work that your class will sell more tickets 
than any other group. Work out your own plans. 
The following suggestions, however, may assist 
you: Every pupil should first undertake to sell to 
his parents and friends, and later to strangers. If 
your class is to sell more tickets than any other, you 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 161 

must be superior salesmen. This means that you 
must very carefully plan your sales talks and then 
dramatize, or rehearse, them before your class. 
Gather all the information you can about the motion 
picture or entertainment you propose to give, and 
in your talk to the customer cause him to want to 
buy a ticket. You should follow an outline similar 
to the following: 

1. The purpose of the show or entertainment 

2. The place and date 

3. What the entertainment consists of (Try to awaken in the 

customer a desire for it.) 

4. Persuasion (Sentences to persuade the customer — for 

example, “ This will be the best show that will come to the 
Pershing this year ”, etc.) 

5. The price of the tickets and conclusion of the sale 

Of course, you will understand that sales talks 
may be planned in many ways. 

Talk to the Class. With the class as a club, and 
the president or other member presiding, discuss 
the following topic *. How I think we should conduct 
our sales campaign. If possible, suggest a complete 
plan. 

Writing a Letter. Write a letter to some person 
in your school district who has no children asking 
him to grant you an audience — that is, to permit 
you to come and tell him about your entertainment. 
Explain the purpose of your campaign. 
Dramatizing a Sale. Before going out to sell 
tickets you should rehearse your talk before the 
class and then revise it in the light of class criticisms. 
You will choose a classmate who will act as customer 
and then give your talk as effectively as possible. 
The customer should offer some objections to buy- 


162 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


ing. You should answer these willingly and politely. 
Always keep in mind the customer's wishes and do 
not be over-persuasive. 

Making Posters. Make suitable posters for the 
bulletin boards and for store windows. Choose 
sentences that attract attention. 

Writing a Letter. Write a letter to a pupil ab¬ 
sent on account of sickness, telling him about the 
show or entertainment you are going to have. 

II. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE: THE 
SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSE 

The Substantive Clause. Up to this time you 
have been considering sentences in which the sub¬ 
ordinate clauses were used as modifiers. Now you 
shall see that a clause may take the place of a noun 
in the sentence. Like a noun, a clause may be used 
as subject or object. When so used, it should be 
called a noun clause, or, better still, a substantive 
clause. Let us consider two very easy sentences: 

1. Woman suffrage was advocated by many. 

2. That women should vote was advocated by many. 

In the first sentence the subject substantive is 
suffrage and the predicate verb is was advocated. In 
the second the predicate verb remains the same. 
What expression now takes the place of suffrage ? Or 
if it will simplify the matter more, you may ask what 
it is that was advocated. You will see at once that 
it is the whole group of words that goes before the 
verb was advocated. This group of words is, of 
course, a clause, because it has a skeleton of its own — 
a subject substantive and a predicate verb — namely, 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 163 


women should vote. The word that merely introduces 
the clause and may be called an introductory word. 

What is the subject of each of the following sen¬ 
tences ? 

1. Your victory was announced. 

That you had won was announced. 

2. The declaration of war was opposed by only a few. 

That war should be declared was opposed by only a few. 

3. The truth of my statement can now be seen by all. 

That my statement is true can now be seen by all. 

4. The success of the attempt was questioned by many. 
Whether the attempt would be successful was questioned by 

many. 

5. Death by the hand of the enemy is often the soldier’s fortune. 
That he should die by the hand of the enemy is often the 

soldier’s fortune. 

You have already seen that the subject of a sen¬ 
tence may follow the verb when the sentence is 
introduced by the word there — as, “ There are two 
hoys in my class.” Here the word there tells you to 
look after the verb for the subject. Now, it may 
happen that a clause as subject may follow the verb 
in much the same way. The introductory word in 
such sentences is it instead of there. Take, for ex¬ 
ample, the sentence, “ It is important that you 
should attend the meeting.” The word it means 
nothing without the clause. The introductory 
word may even be omitted altogether if we write 
the clause before the verb — thus: “ That you 
should attend the meeting is important.” 

Write the substantive clauses before the verb in 
the following sentences, omitting the word it : 

1. It was unfortunate that Clay was not elected president, 

2. It can be seen that the poor are often mistreated, 


164 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


3. It was doubtful whether the war would end soon. 

4. It was known that the man owned much property. 

Sometimes a substantive clause follows a linking 
verb and refers to the subject — thus: 

1. The fact is that he failed. 

2. Our objection will be that the work is too difficult. 

3. Nathan Hale’s regret was that he had but one life to give 

for his country. 

4. My opinion is that the prisoner is guilty. 

5. Our demand was that Germany should restore Belgium. 

Sometimes, too, the clause is used as the object of 
a verb. Read carefully the following sentences: 

1. I know the report. 

I know that he has been sent to prison. 

2. William promised obedience. 

William promised that he would obey. 

3. The child did not know the solution of the problem. 

The child did not know how he could solve the problem. 

4. I asked permission to go. 

I asked if I might go. 

5. The teacher inquired the reason for my absence. 

The teacher inquired why I was absent. 

6. The officers knew his hiding-place. 

The officers knew where he was hiding. 

You will observe that the subordinate conjunc¬ 
tions that, whether , if, how, why, when, and where are 
often used to join the noun, or substantive clause 
to the rest of the sentence. But the connective is 
frequently omitted — thus : 

1. I heard you were injured. 

2. The general knew he was right. 

3. The child promised me he would do the work. 

It should also be stated that a substantive clause 
may be used after a preposition — thus : 

I knew nothing about what crime was committed. 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 165 


Exercise 1 

Find the substantive clauses in the following 
sentences. Which are used as subject of the sen¬ 
tence? Which are used as object of a verb? Find 
some that are used after linking verbs. 

1. That the war was a just one nobody can doubt. 

2. That we could accomplish our aim was the belief of all. 

3. Whether his effort will fail cannot be determined at this time. 

4. That he might fall into the river had never occurred to us. 

5. The truth is that none of us could swim. 

6. The Camp Fire Girls promised their mothers that they would 

be careful. 

7. We did not know why the boat had been abandoned. 

8. The fact is that the earth is round. 

9. That we shall have a long winter is believed by all. 

10. The secretary asked whether I had signed the letter. 

11. It is fortunate that we brought our umbrellas. 

12. That the Governor will sign the bill I do not doubt. 

13. Each said he would buy a bond. 

14. Virginia knew that she was elected president of her class. 

15. That pupils should have a part in the government of the 

school is advocated by a great many writers. 

16. I do not remember what I did the first day of school. 

17. The judge told the witness that he should remain. 

18. The witness was told that he should remain. (The clause 

is here used as a retained object.) 

19. Next morning it was reported that eight men had been 

killed in a fire at the Christian Brothers’ College. 

20. That a serious accident did not occur at that time is remark¬ 

able. 

21. That troops would be sent to Mexico appeared certain at 

that date. 

22. I inquired where I could get a car. 

23. That we did not know our own city intimately was proved 

conclusively. 

24. It is evident that some one had set fire to the house. 

25. Our club requested that the teacher go with us to the park. 


166 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


26. That the picnic would be held on Saturday had been de¬ 

termined several days ago. 

27. Our opinion is that the boy is innocent. 

28. That the lesson is very difficult is known to all. 

29. It has been learned that the submarine is a dangerous in¬ 

vention. 

30. That the American boys are brave has been conceded by the 

enemy. 


Exercise 2 

Select the subordinate clauses in the following 
sentences and tell how each is used: 

1. The automobile, in which sat two physicians, was struck 

by a street car. 

2. At the river we ate the lunch which we had brought with us. 

3. Whittier, who was a great American poet, edited a paper. 

4. While Harold was playing near the lake, he saw a boat 

turn over and sink. 

5. If the weather were fair, the children could play in the park. 

6. The man that called at your office yesterday is my brother. 

7. Because somebody had been careless, a terrible explosion 

occurred. 

8. After the hall had been lighted, the audience assembled for 

the meeting. 

9. The child handed me a bucket, in which I placed the shells. 

10. The child in whose behalf I appeared did not recognize me. 

Analysis. The analysis of sentences containing 
substantive clauses will help to master this kind of 
assertions. Notice carefully the analysis of the 
following sentences: 

1. “That the secretary would write the letter was believed bv 
all” 

This is a complex declarative sentence. The 
subject is the substantive clause “ That the secre¬ 
tary would write the letter.” The complete pred- 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 167 


icate is “ was believed by all”, of which the pred¬ 
icate verb is “ was believed. ” The predicate 
verb is modified by the adverbial phrase “ by all.” 

2. “ The fact is that we had failed.” 

This is a complex declarative sentence. The 
complete subject is “ The fact”, of which “ fact ” 
is the subject substantive. The complete predi¬ 
cate is “is that we had failed ”, of which “ is ” is 
the linking verb and the clause “ that we had failed ” 
the predicate noun, or substantive. 

Exercise 3 

Analyze the following sentences : 

1. That the young man would be killed in battle was feared by 

his mother. 

2. Henry asked that I build a fire. 

3. It is expected that every loyal citizen do his part in the great 

crisis. 

4. The belief is that stars are suns. 

5. That I succeed at all is a piece of good fortune. 

6. The hunter told us that he had killed no squirrels. 

7. It is remarkable that more accidents do not happen on our 

crowded streets. 

8. The man said he would do the work. 

9. Whether the board of education would grant a holiday was 

uncertain. 

10. That the novel was interesting cannot be doubted by any one. 

Punctuation. The substantive clause is not gen¬ 
erally set off by a comma. In most cases such 
clauses are used as subject or object. A subject 
or object should not be set off unless very long, be¬ 
cause there should be no separation in thought. 
Take, for example, the sentence “ John struck the 
child.” No one would place a comma after John, 


168 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


nor would any one place a comma after struck. For 
the same reason you should not separate the sub¬ 
stantive clause from the rest of the sentence. The 
following sentences are written correctly : 

1. That John was brave was believed by all. 

2. We knew that the victory was won. 

Likewise, the clause is not set off after a linking 
verb. 


1. The fact is that we were unprepared. 

2. Our contention is that he is dishonest. 

The substantive clause is, however, set off by the 
comma when it takes the form of a direct quotation. 
If the quotation is long or formally introduced, the 
colon may be used. 

1. The secretary said, “ I shall read the governor’s letter.” 

2. Edward asked, “ What should I study? ” 

3. Lincoln spoke as follows : “ Four-score and seven years ago 

our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation.” 

Sometimes a substantive clause is added to a noun 
to explain it. When it is so used, it should not gen¬ 
erally be set off by a comma — thus: 

1. The belief that stars are suns is held by astronomers. 

2. The news that a state of war had been declared was rapidly 

spread abroad. 

Often, however, a clause so used is introduced 
by such words as for example, namely, for instance, 
that is, and the like. The dash is generally used 
before one of these introductory words and a comma 
after it — thus : 

1. The contention of the German leaders — namely , that America 
could be ignored in this war — was founded on ignorance. 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 169 

2. Mr. Hoover gave us at least one bit of good advice — that is, 
that we should waste nothing. 


Exercise 4 

Put in marks of punctuation only where they are 
really needed. 

1. That his plan is wise has been doubted. 

2. He said “ How old are you?” 

3. His desire that I act as chairman pleased me. 

4. His usual fault namely that he is too slow caused him to 

lose his position. 

5. The attorney knew that the witness was telling a falsehood. 

6. There was one demand that he could make that is that he 

be released. 

7. The assertion that the plan will fail is not founded on good 

judgment. 

8. That the time had come to strike a decisive blow no one could 

doubt. 

9. A sentence states a fact for example Children play ball. 

10. It is unfortunate that the weather is so cold. 


CHAPTER SIXTEEN 


I. A TRAVEL MAGAZINE 

You will find it interesting to plan and discuss 
imaginary journeys to various foreign countries. 
Let us suppose that you are going to visit Japan. 
On a globe, or with an atlas, trace the route you 
would take. To what city would you go first? 
What part of the way would you cover by rail, by 
lake or river steamer, and by ocean vessel? What 
interesting stops would you plan to make on the 
way over? 

These journeys will furnish many occasions for 
descriptive themes and letters. Your work should 
be prepared carefully and bound in the form of a 
booklet. 

Project XVI. Making a Travel Magazine 

Planning the Work. You should, of course, work 
out your own plans as far as possible. However, 
the following suggestions should be found helpful: 

You will find it necessary to gather many of your 
ideas from books and pictures, such as geographies, 
works of travel, and works of art. For example, 
in the Stoddard Lectures you may read of the prin¬ 
cipal cities and what is to be seen in each. Other 
works of travel will be found in your school library 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 171 


or in the city library. The following will prove 
especially helpful: 

The National Geographic Magazine 

Carpenter’s Geographic Readers 

Little People Everywhere series 

The Stoddard Lectures 

Letters of Travel, by Phillips Brooks 

Travelogues 

Write a chapter of your journey every week, or 
oftener if time permits, illustrating your work with 
pictures clipped from magazines or from railway 
and steamship folders. Post-card collections from 
foreign countries may sometimes be obtained, and 
they never fail to add interest to the work. 

Each pupil may choose the journey he wishes to 
take or the class may work in groups. First trace 
the route you will take and then decide upon the 
stop-overs you prefer. The following suggestions 
will prove helpful when making your choice: 

1. A journey from your home to England, France, and Italy. 

Your first stop-over may be in London, where you can see 
Tower Bridge, Parliament Buildings, St. Paul’s Cathedral, 
Westminster Abbey, a street scene, etc. Probably your 
next stop-over will be in Paris, where you will visit the 
Louvre, the Bourse, the Palais Royal, the theaters, etc. 
From Paris you may take a day’s journey to Lyons. Con¬ 
tinuing, you will not fail, of course, to stop for a time in 
Rome, the Eternal City, where you will see many famous 
buildings — St. Peter’s, the Vatican, the Papal residence 
and gardens, many historic ruins, etc. St. Peter’s is 613 
feet long, 286 feet wide, and 435 feet high. It cost 
$50,000,000 and took 176 years to build. 

2. A journey to the famous battlefields of the World War — 

Chateau Thierry, Marne, Argonne Forest, etc. 

3. A journey to Greece, where you will see evidences of the 

glorious past — the city of Athens with the remains of the 


172 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


Parthenon and Propylseum on the Acropolis, etc. A visit 
to Corinth, Argos, and Sparta. 

4. A journey to Russia, where you will stop for a time to see the 

old city of Moscow which was founded about the middle of 
the twelfth century. Here you will visit the Kremlin in 
the center of the city. This old fortress of renown is not 
a single building, but a collection of palaces, churches, 
and public offices. Do not fail to see the Univer¬ 
sity. From Moscow you will probably go to Petrograd, 
on the Neva, where you will enjoy a trip to the Cathedral 
of St. Isaac, the Ministries, the Admiralty, the University, 
and the Markets. Greatest of all are the former palaces 
of the Czar. 

5. A journey to Palestine. Do not fail to see Jerusalem, Jaffa, 

and Bethlehem. 

6. A journey to the Philippine Islands, Japan, and China, with 

stop-overs at Manila, Tokyo, and one or more of the large 
cities of China. 

7. A journey to India with several days’ stay in Calcutta, the 

“City of Palaces.” 

8. A journey to Egypt. See Cairo, and the Pyramids, the land¬ 

marks of the ages. 

Talk to the Class. Cut pictures from magazines 
and railway and steamship folders. With the class 
as a club and the president presiding, tell the class 
some interesting facts about the buildings or scenes 
represented. Preserve the pictures for use in illus¬ 
trating places visited on your imaginary journeys. 

Written English. Place in your notebook a brief 
sketch of the route you expect to take and the names 
of some of the important stop-overs. 

Talk to the Class. Prepare a two-minute talk 
on the subject The longest real journey I have ever 
taken. Make an outline of the details you wish to 
present and follow it closely. 

Written English. Write the first chapter of your 
journey and secure any pictures available to illus- 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 173 


trate it. Try to secure variety of sentence struc¬ 
ture. This can be done by beginning some of your 
sentences with subordinate clauses or participial 
phrases. For example, it is more effective to say: 
“ When we were but a few miles from the port, a storm 
arose ” than “ A storm arose when we were but a 
few miles from port.” Short sentences are often 
more emphatic than longer ones. It is well, how¬ 
ever, to vary their length. Do not be afraid to 
use the pronoun I, and write as if actually talking 
to a friend. Imitate the language and style of 
Phillips Brooks’s Letters of Travel . 

Writing a Letter. Write a letter to some railway 
or steamship company asking for folders describing 
or illustrating trips that may be taken. 

Talk to the Class. Prepare a short talk explain¬ 
ing the advantages of travel and state the cost of a 
trip abroad. 

Written English. Write another chapter of your 
journey. Perhaps each stop-over will furnish ma¬ 
terial for a chapter. This will insure unity of the 
divisions — that is, each will treat of but a single 
subject. 

Writing a Letter. Write a letter to a friend tell¬ 
ing him what you saw in some famous place on your 
journey. Try to write in the same natural way as 
if you were going to mail the letter. If time per¬ 
mits, read your letter to the class. 

Talk to the Class. If possible secure a post-card 
collection of views of some foreign city or country 
and tell the class some interesting facts about each 
picture. 

Continuing the Work. The work of making the 
magazine can be continued as long as necessary, 


174 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


following the foregoing plan. It is well, however, 
to plan so that your project will be completed within 
a month. 


II. ANALYSIS OF THE SENTENCE 

1. How to Analyze the Simple Sentence 

“In a few minutes more there came over the scene another 
radical alteration.” 

Oral analysis: This is a simple declarative sen¬ 
tence. The complete subject is “ another radical 
alteration ” and the complete predicate “ came over 
the scene in a few minutes more.” The skeleton is 
“ alteration came ”, of which “ alteration ” is the 
subject substantive and “ came ” the predicate 
verb. The subject substantive is modified by the 
adjectives “ radical ” and “ another.” The pred¬ 
icate verb is modified by the adverbial phrases 
“ in a few minutes more ” and “ over the scene.” 
The word “ there ” is merely introductory. 


2. How to Analyze the Compound Sentence 

“The poet spoke sadly, and his eyes were dim with tears.” 

This is a compound declarative sentence consist¬ 
ing of two coordinate members joined by the con¬ 
junction “ and.” The complete subject of the 
first member is “ The poet ” and the complete 
predicate “ spoke sadly.” The skeleton is “ poet 
spoke”, of which “poet” is the subject substan¬ 
tive and “ spoke ” the predicate verb. The subject 
substantive “ poet ” is modified by “ the ” and the 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 175 

predicate verb “ spoke ” by “ sadly.” The complete 
subject of the second member is “ his eyes ” and the 
complete predicate “ were dim with tears.” The 
skeleton is “ eyes were.” The subject substan¬ 
tive “ eyes ” is modified by the possessive adjective 
“ his ” and the predicate adjective “ dim.” The 
predicate adjective is modified by the adverbial 
phrase “ with tears.” 


3. How to Analyze the Complex Sentence 

“As Ernest listened to the poet, he imagined that the Great 
Stone Face was bending forward to listen too.” 

This is a complex declarative sentence, consisting of 
an independent clause and two subordinate clauses. 
The independent clause is “ he imagined that the 
Great Stone Face was bending forward to listen 
too.” The substantive clause “ that the Great 
Stone Face was bending to listen too ” is so inti¬ 
mately a part of the independent assertion that it 
cannot be omitted from the statement. The skel¬ 
eton of the independent clause is “ he imagined.” 
The predicate verb “ imagined ” is modified by the 
adverbial clause, “ As Ernest listened to the 
poet.” In this subordinate clause the skeleton is 
“ Ernest listened ”, and the verb “ listened ” is 
modified by the adverbial phrase “ to the poet.” 
“ As ” is a subordinate conjunction. The substan¬ 
tive clause is the object of “ imagined.” Its 
skeleton is “ Great Stone Face was bending.” 
The subject substantive is modified by “ the ” and 
the predicate verb is modified by the adverbs “ for¬ 
ward ” and “ too ” and by the infinitive “ to listen.” 


176 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


Exercise 1 

Analyze the following sentences : 

1. The village was incorporated, and lots were reserved for a 

school and a church. 

2. A very large part of the expense of the government could be 

avoided, if the poor homes of the city could be converted 
into pleasant ones. 

3. Unless the relations between the husband and wife are right, 

the home will be imperfect. 

4. There are sections of the States of the Northwest where 

almost the entire population is Swedish. 

5. Our government offers all its people equal rights and op¬ 

portunities. 

6. The thousands who are coming to our shores this year will, 

in the course of a few years, be proud of the name Ameri¬ 
can. 

7. It is a fundamental idea of our government that there are 

certain political rights held by all. 

8. The government may control the way in which a citizen 

uses his land. 

9. If the interests of a community call for a new street, it may 

be constructed through the property of individuals. 

10. Communities may grant the use of their highways to private 

corporations that render important public services. 

11. Residence in a community carries with it duties and rights. 

12. The desire for wealth is common among Americans. 

13. Streams that once were clear and sparkling have now be¬ 

come impure with the refuse of factories. 

14. Impure and unwholesome food should not be sold in the 

markets and over the counters of stores. 

15. Whatever disadvantages the country child may suffer from 

an isolated life, he has a good chance for a sound body. 

16. When the streams became impure with sawdust, the owner 

ordered them cleaned. 

17. The ghost of his old partner, Jacob Marley, came to Old 

Scrooge and told him of the horrors awaiting such as defy 
the spirit of Christmas. 

18. Moral courage had declined in many European countries 

before the war. 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 177 


19. It is a fact that the most highly educated nations fight best. 

20. Another man who reads a great deal is Senator McCormick. 

21. The troops had become so hardened that they did not mind 

the rough weather. 

22. Passers-by were attracted by a shot, and a crowd quickly 

gathered. 

23. The military authorities are working on the case, and some 

startling discoveries may be made. 

24. Do most of your neighbors own their own homes, or do they 

rent? 

25. As a city grows and the demand for housing facilities in¬ 

creases, rents necessarily become higher. 

26. Foreigners naturally drift to sections of the country where 

there are already a large number of their countrymen. 

27. The employer is responsible for the welfare of those who 

work for him. 

28. When an employer finds that he cannot trust one of his 

employees, he is likely to mistrust them all. 

29. The rate of speed at which an automobile may run is es¬ 

tablished by law. 

30. Every year the life-savers perform heroic services and save 

many lives. 

31. Irving, who was born in New York, really belongs to the 

whole country. 

32. Before the meeting was adjourned, an old man told the story 

of the Indian attacks in the early history of the state. 

33. That there should be more interest in good roads is ac¬ 

knowledged by all. 

34. In those cities where the people have shown that they really 

want beautiful streets, much progress has been made 
toward getting them. 

35. It is too often true that pupils do not take good care of their 

books. 

36. The manager of the concern, who happened to be a friend 

of mine, explained the business. 

37. In many States the State university is the greatest educa¬ 

tional institution. 

38. We have learned that the national government gave a start 

to the educational work of the States by the donation of 
tracts of land. 

39. The State of Indiana has a very good system of rural schools. 


178 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


40. In the home there should always be at least one musical 

instrument. 

41. If you have ever lived on a noisy street, you can appreciate 

the disadvantages of such a place. 

42. General Joffre, a distinguished French hero, has visited the 

United States twice. 

43. Ordinances sometimes forbid the littering of streets, but 

such regulations are commonly disregarded. 

44. Am ong the most beautiful objects in nature are the forest 

trees. 

45. You all know that we have common interests. 

46. Whether we should protest against the violations of the 

law was the question which we discussed. 

47. If any question arises as to the meaning of the laws, it is 

always finally settled by the highest court. 

48. In almost every state the people are striving to secure good 

laws. 

49. After the election has been held, everybody should accept 

the verdict of the people. 

50. There has never been a more popular American poet than 

Longfellow. 


CHAPTER SEVENTEEN 
I. A PUBLIC DEBATE 


A debate is so much like a game or contest that 
you will enjoy taking part in the work. Many im¬ 
portant questions arise naturally from school activi¬ 
ties or grow out of school life. The following are 
suggestive: 

1. Should our school adopt the so-called honor system of holding 

examinations ? 

2. Should student officers be elected by the student body ? 

3. Should pupils who have made a high grade in a subject be 

excused from the term examination ? 

4. Should special honors, such as giving a school pin or letter, 

be awarded for good citizenship ? 

5. Should there be free admission to athletic games ? 

You will find it interesting to debate such ques¬ 
tions as the foregoing. Your project, therefore, is 
Holding a Public Debate. 

Project XVII. Holding a Public Debate 

Planning the Work. In order to insure the great¬ 
est interest, arrange a debate with another class 
in your school or in a different school. Work out 
every detail of your plan with special care. When 
and where shall the debate be held? How many 
judges will be needed and how shall they be chosen? 
Who shall be the debaters? Naturally, nqt every 


180 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


member can appear on the final program. Should 
your class have a preliminary contest to determine 
the pupils who should represent it ? 

The president should appoint the following com¬ 
mittees, who should begin their work at once: 

1. A committee to suggest a list of suitable questions 

2. A committee on arrangements 

3. A committee to investigate and report on the rules of debating 

Talk to the Class. Prepare a two-minute talk, 

giving in detail the plan you think the class should 
adopt for holding the debate. When beginning 
your talk, say: “ Mr. President, I wish to tell the 
class my plan for holding the debate.” When all 
have spoken, the class should vote on the adoption 
of one of the plans submitted or should refer the 
matter to a committee, who will report to the class 
a day or two later. 

Writing a Letter. A plan having been adopted, 
write a letter to the pupils of another class chal¬ 
lenging them to debate with you. Explain the plan 
the class has adopted and invite them to send a 
committee on arrangements for a discussion of the 
matter. The letters should be read to the class 
and the best one sent. 

Report of the First Committee. The committee 
appointed to recommend a list of suitable questions 
should now report. The secretary of the class may 
write the list on the blackboard. After a discussion 
of the merits of each question, the class should se¬ 
lect the best one by vote. The committee on ar¬ 
rangements will next be instructed by the presi¬ 
dent to propose it to the opposing class. 

Written English. As soon as the question for 
debate has been definitely agreed upon, prepare an 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 181 


outline, or brief, on the affirmative or the negative 
side. If you favor answering the question with 
yes, your outline will be an affirmative brief; but if 
you favor answering it with no, it will be a negative 
brief. Suppose your question to be Should student 
officers be elected by the student body ? Begin your 
brief as follows and state each point in the form of a 
sentence: 

Student officers should be elected by the student body, 
for — 

1. The students will be more loyal to the officers they them¬ 

selves elect than to those appointed by the principal. 

2. It is a more democratic form of school government when the 

students choose their officers than when the principal 
appoints them. 

Complete the foregoing brief and be ready to use 
it when the preliminary debate is held. 

Report of the Committee on Rules. The com¬ 
mittee on rules should now report orally to the class. 
Place in your notebooks important facts on such top¬ 
ics as the following: 

1. Order in which the speakers appear 

2. The closing speech 

3. Length of speeches 

4. Selection of judges 

5. Politeness 

Preliminary Debate. With the president or some 
other pupil presiding, speak on the affirmative or 
negative side of the question. When all have 
spoken, the class should choose the five or six who 
have done the best work to represent the class at 
the final debate. 

Written English. Write a letter inviting the 
principal or a friend to attend the debate. Tell 


182 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


him the question to be discussed and explain the 
plan the classes have agreed upon. Inclose a copy 
of the program. 

The Debate. The debate should be conducted 
in a fair and impartial manner. When all the speak¬ 
ers have finished their work, the president will ask 
the judges to decide who has won the debate. The 
verdict of the judges should be accepted without 
question. 

Writing a News Article. Write an account of the 
debate for the school paper. Make it brief but in¬ 
teresting. State the question and give the names 
of the speakers on each side. Give also the names 
of the judges and tell which side won. Mention 
the names of visitors. Mention any special fea¬ 
tures of the program, such as music, etc. 


II. SUBSTANTIVES 

Common and Proper Nouns. In the following 

sentences the nouns are written in italics: 

1. The State to which he referred is Illinois. 

2. The largest city in the State is Chicago. 

3. Henry is the oldest hoy in the room. 

4. The name of the present month is July. 

In the first sentence which of the two nouns, 
State or Illinois , is the name of a particular thing? 
In the second which is the name of a particular 
place, city or Chicago ? Answer the same questions 
about the nouns in the third and fourth sentences. 

You will observe that there are two kinds of 
nouns — those that apply to any one of a whole 
class and those that name particular things. The 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 183 


first kind, including such nouns as city, boy, room, 
and month, is known as a class noun. 

A common noun is one that applies to a whole class 
or to any one of a class of persons, places, or things. 
The following are examples of common nouns: 


member 

grocer 

day 

table 

month 


cow 

river 

club 

girl 

lake 

book 

man 

mountain 

street 

boy 

hill 

church 

dog 

school 

continent 


A proper noun is one that applies to a particular 
place, person, or thing. 

The following are examples of proper nouns: 


James 

Thomas Jefferson 
Helen 

Helen Keller 
Fort Sumter 
Niagara Falls 


St. Louis 
Boston 
Washington 
New York Times 
Clark School 
North Station 


Olive Street 
Lake Michigan 
Columbia University 
Panama Canal 
Globe-Democrat 
New England 


A proper noun should begin with a capital letter. 
Notice that each noun is so written in the preceding 
illustration. 

Sometimes a common noun does not apply to a 
concrete object but to a quality or idea as, duty, 
kindness, honesty, jealousy . Such nouns are called 
abstract nouns. 

Sometimes also a common noun is the name of a 
group _ as> herd, flock, drove, army, school, nation, 
jury, senate. 

The following are examples of compound nouns: 


sister-in-law editor in chief 

commander in chief man-of-war 

book agent insurance agent 


184 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


Exercise 1 

Separate the following nouns into two groups, 
the one containing common nouns and the other 
proper nouns: 


club 

October 

pupil 

American 

Sunday 

Herbert 

Red Cross 

holiday 

Grand Central Station 

baby 

spy 

Robinson Crusoe 

children 

general 

Forest Park 

Little Women Europe 

man 

Louisiana 

Mayflower 

hero 

author 

conductor 

chicken 

Kipling 

county 

lake 

pencil 

leader 

Senator Stone 

house 

Bunker Hill 

Nottingham 

Gender. 

Some nouns 

denote males, some 


males, and others do not indicate sex at all. The 
following nouns indicate sex. Separate them into 
two lists, one denoting males and the other females. 

man, woman, father, nephew, mother, brother, niece, son, 
sister, daughter, gander, hero, tiger, actor, goose, heroine, 
tigress, heir, actress, heiress. 

A noun that is used in speaking of males is of the 
masculine gender — as, man, boy, hero, lad. 

A noun that is used in speaking of females is of 
the feminine gender — as, woman, girl, heroine, lass. 

A noun that is used in speaking of things that 
are neither male nor female is of the neuter gender 
— as, book, tree, house, wagon. 

Certain pronoun forms also denote gender. 
Those that denote males are he, his, him, himself. 
Those that denote females are she, her, and herself . 
Those of the neuter gender are it and itself. 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 185 


Case. The subject of case is of small importance 
in correct speaking and writing, as there is but one 
special form, the possessive, or genitive, and this we 
shall study under the heading of Common Forms 
and Possessive Forms. Your attention will be 
called, however, to the various case relations and 
case names because some of these facts will be found 
helpful in the study of pronouns. 

A noun that is used as subject of the sentence is 
in the nominative case. 

1. The book has been lost. 

2. The New York Times gave an account of the battle. 

A predicate noun is also in the nominative case, 
and is generally called a predicate nominative. 

1. The senator is an orator of ability. 

2. The little speck became a great cloud. 

A noun that is used in address or in apposition is 
also in the nominative case. 

1. William , bring me the book. 

2. Grant, the general, kept his soldiers cheerful. 

The personal pronouns have special forms for 
the subject, which we may call subject forms, or 
nominatives — as, I, we, he, she, and they. The 
relative who is also a subject form. 

A noun that is used as the object of a verb is in 
the accusative, or the objective, case. 

Henry struck the ball. 

A noun that is used as the object of a preposi¬ 
tion or as an indirect object, adverbial object, or 


186 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


objective predicate, is in the accusative, or objec¬ 
tive, case. 

1. The secretary went with the President. ( President is the 

object of with.) 

2. The dentist gave Charles a brush. ( Charles is an indirect 

object.) 

3. The members of the club made John chairman. {Chairman 

is an objective predicate.) 

4. The men rode a mile farther. {Mile is an adverbial objective.) 

The personal pronouns have special forms for 

the accusative, or the objective, which we may call 
object forms — as, me, us, him, her , and them . The 
relative form whom is also an object form. 

A noun that has the possessive form is commonly 
said to be in the possessive , or genitive , case — as, 
Frank’s, lady’s. 


Exercise 2 

Select the nouns and state the case of each: 

1. The world has always had reformers. 

2. The task of America is a difficult one. 

3. Lincoln gave the world a lesson in common sense. 

4. The children remained a week at the lake. 

5. Everyone called him captain. 

6. This, my friends, is an impossible task. 

7. Mr. Hines, the editor, took a long vacation. 

8. We pronounced his statement a falsehood. 

9. The boy returned Henry’s book. 

10. Ladies’ hats were on sale at the store. 

11. The end of a long and perilous journey was at last in sight. 

12. The pupils seemed anxious for the end of the term of school. 

13. From the Gulf of Mexico to the Great Lakes, and from sea 

to sea, the people manifested the same whole-hearted 
patriotism. 

14. The city was situated on the shore of the lake. 

15. The men who have manifested the greatest energy in their 

work have succeeded best. 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 187 


Common and Possessive Forms. Everyone 
knows that nouns change their form to denote one 
or more than one — as, boy, boys; child, children; 
and man, men. This change of form is, of course, 
called number. Aside from this, nouns have but two 
forms — the common form and the possessive form. 
The possessive is sometimes called the genitive form . 
The common form requires no study, but the pos¬ 
sessive should, at least, be briefly considered. 

In the following sentences determine how the 
singular and plural possessive forms are written: 

1. The boy’s coat is large. 

2. Boys’ coats were on sale. 

3. The man’s suit is new. 

4. Men’s and boys’ clothing was sold at the store. 

5. Charles’s book is torn. 

6. The Charleses’ reigns were eventful. 

7. A month’s interest is due. 

8. We shall have a ten months’ term of school. 

9. Dickens’s novels and Burns’s poems are still popular. 

The rules for forming the possessive may be 
stated as follows: 

1. To form the singular possessive add the apostrophe and s. 

Practically all nouns ending in $ or the sound of s, should 
form their possessive in the regular way — by adding the 
apostrophe and s. There are but few exceptions to this 
rule, and the tendency of present good usage is to follow it 
strictly. However, one or two exceptions should be men¬ 
tioned — for example, Goodness’ sake and conscience’ sake. 

2. To form the plural possessive of nouns ending in s add the 

apostrophe only — for example, boys ’, Germans ’, wives ’, 
ladies’. 

To form the possessive of plurals not ending in s add both 
the apostrophe and s — for example, men’s, children’s. 
In order to avoid errors we should first make sure of the 
plural form and then add whatever is necessary to make 
the word possessive. 


188 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


The following list of words shows possessive sin¬ 
gular and possessive plural forms : 


Singular 

Plural 

man’s 

men’s 

wife’s 

wives’ 

Charles’s 

Charleses’ 

Burns’s 

Burnses’ 

child’s 

children’s 

fox’s 

foxes’ 

German’s 

Germans’ 

Dickens’s 

Dickenses’ 

ox’s 

oxen’s 


The possessive should not generally be used of 
things without life. The prepositional phrase in¬ 
troduced by of should be used instead — for exam¬ 
ple, the cover of the hook, the shape of the field. There 
are, however, a few exceptions — namely, a stone's 
throw, ten months' term, the law's delays. 

Occasionally the double possessive is used, or 
perhaps we should say the double genitive — thus, 
a mistake of the printer's, a son of my sister's. These 
forms should be considered idioms and passed as 
such without further explanation. 

Exercise 3 

Choose the correct possessive form: 

1. (Mens’, men’s) hats were on sale. 

2. (Boys’, boy’s) and (girls’, girl’s) toys were found in every 

home. 

3. We had the pleasure of meeting (Charles’, Charles’s) father. 

4. The (children’s, childrens’) playground was sold. 

5. Father was proud of the volume of (Bums’, Bums’s) poems. 

6. We bought our clothes at (Smith’s and Brown’s, Smith and 

Brown’s) store. 

7. School closed for a two (days’, day’s) vacation. 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 189 


8. The (bottle’s shape, shape of the bottle) was very unusual. 

9. The (wolf’s, wolves’) skins were hanging on the wall. 

10. The man returned the money merely for (conscience's 

sake, conscience’ sake). 

11. The error was a mistake of the (printer’s, printer). 

Kinds of Pronouns. In speaking and writing it 
is convenient to have words that you can use instead 
of nouns. A number of little words, such as he, she, 
his, her, and they, are used to do this important work. 
They are called pronouns. The word for which a 
pronoun stands is called its antecedent. In the fol¬ 
lowing sentences the pronouns are in italics and the 
antecedent in parentheses: 

1. He (William) enjoyed the music. 

2. Which (picture) does she (Helen) like ? 

3. They (the class) favor the one (boy) who (boy) can preside 

well. 

The following are some of the pronouns that we 
use constantly: 


I 

you 

him 

them 

whose 

me 

yours 

she 

it 

whom 

we 

he 

her 

its 

which 

us 

his 

they 

who 

that 

mine 

ours 

theirs 

thine 

what 


Pronouns may be classified as personal, possessive, 
demonstrative, interrogative, relative, and indefinite 
pronouns. The personal pronouns refer directly 
to persons and include I, we, me, us, you, he, she, 
him, her, they, and them. 

The possessive pronouns are mine, thine, his, hers, 
ours, yours, theirs, and whose. 

1. This book is mine. 

2. His is a difficult task. 

3. The honor is theirs, 


190 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


The demonstrative pronouns are this and that 
and their plurals these and those. 

1. This is a difficult undertaking. 

2. That is evidently his purpose. 

The interrogative pronouns are those that are used 
in asking questions. They are who, whom, which, 
and what. 


1. Who was elected ? 

2. Which do you prefer? 

3. What do you want ? 

The relative pronouns are those that join a subor¬ 
dinate clause to their antecedent. They include 
who, which, that, and what. In succeeding lessons 
we shall learn more of their work in the sentence. 
The pronoun who should be used in speaking of per¬ 
sons ; which, in speaking of animals or things; and 
that, in speaking of persons, animals, or things. 
What is a sort of double relative used in speaking of 
things. 

The indefinite pronouns are those that point out 
something indefinitely. The following are the chief 
members of this group : one, some one, any one, any, 
no one, none, everyone, each, the other, neither, and 
both. 

The compound personal pronouns, such as my¬ 
self, yourself, himself, and the like, are sometimes 
called reflexives or intensives according to their use 
in the sentence. 

1. The boy accidentally struck himself. (Reflexive.) 

2. The teacher himself made an error. (Intensive.) 

Each other and one another are sometimes called 
reciprocal pronouns. Each other should be used in 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 191 


speaking of two things and one another in speaking 
of more than two. 

1. The two girls helped each other. 

2. Neighbors should help one another. (If three or more are 

thought of.) 


Exercise 4 

Select the pronouns in the following sentences 
and classify each: 

1. I was unable to win the prize. 

2. They found the boy who did the wicked deed. 

3. Whom do you desire to see ? 

4. This manuscript is mine. 

5. Some one called to see you while you were absent. 

6. I myself was not free from blame. 

7. Children should love one another. 

8. Neither could solve the problem which the teacher had 

assigned. 

9. None has done his full duty. 

10. That is not so difficult as this. 

11. Both of the boys were drowned when the boat capsized. 

12. Which do you prefer ? 

13. Of the books that remained, I did not care to select any. 

14. I saw him when he tried to hide himself behind the bushes. 

15. One of the boys is mistaken. 

Subject and Object Forms. The personal pro¬ 
nouns are those that refer to persons. They include 
special pronouns to denote the speaker, the person 
spoken to, and the person spoken of. The first 
person pronouns are I and we and the object forms 
me and us. The second person pronoun is you. 
The third person pronouns are he, she , and they and 
the object forms him, her, and them. The subject 
forms are those that are used as the subject of a 
verb, and the object forms are those that are used 
as the object of a verb or a preposition. 


192 JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 

Subject forms: I, we, you, he, she, it, they, who, 
whoever. 

Object forms: me, us, you, him, her, it, them, 
whom, whomever. 

The following sentences illustrate the use of the 
subject and object forms: 

1. I wrote the letter. 

2. We went to the store. 

3. He saw the picture. 

4. They changed their plans. 

5. We know the man who bought the house. 

6. The ball struck me. 

7. You have disappointed us. 

8. Between you and me there should be no misunderstanding. 

9. That is the man to whom I have spoken. 

10. Give it to whomever you please. ( whomever is the object 

of the preposition to.) 

11. You may give it to whoever wants it. (whoever is the subject 

of wants.) 

The linking verbs take the subject forms after 
them. The verb be is the chief member of this 
group. Among its many forms are am, is, are, was, 
were, will be, shall be, may be, might be, could be, 
could have been, etc. 

1. It is I. 

2. I am he. 

3. It could not have been they. 

4. The child might be she. 

5. I thought it was he whom we met. 

The infinitives to be and to have been take object 
forms after them, except where they are without an 
independent subject. 

1. John believed it to be me. 

2. We know the stranger to have been her. 

3. Everybody supposed the thief to have been him. 

4. We knew it to have been her. 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 193 


In the following sentences to be and to have been 
have no independent subject and consequently are 
followed by subject forms : 

1. It is thought to be he. 

2. The tall woman was supposed to be she. 

3. I am sometimes taken to be he. 

Possessive Adjectives. In the following sen¬ 
tences notice the words that are used with nouns 
and denote possession: 

1. The child has my hat. 

2. We have our books. 

3. Your friend has come. 

4. The pupil has found his coat. 

5. The pupils have found their coats. 

6. The dog has hurt its foot. 

7. The man whose horse we saw is my neighbor. 

The words my, our, your, his, her, its, their, and 
whose belong to nouns and show possession; they 
are therefore called possessive adjectives. A pos¬ 
sessive adjective may be said to have an antecedent, 
a word to which it refers, and it must agree with 
this antecedent in person and number. Observe 
the following illustrations: 

1. The boy has lost his books. 

2. The boys have lost their books. 

3. I have lost my book. 

4. We have lost our books. 

Remember that the following antecedents are 
always singular: anybody, everybody, nobody, each , 
each one, everyone, any one, no one, man after man, 
either, neither, and a person. Either and neither 
refer to one of two, but any is used of a greater num¬ 
ber. None is either singular or plural. It should 
be considered singular when it means no one. 


194 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


The possessive adjectives do not require the sign 
of the possessive as their forms are already posses¬ 
sive. Such forms as your’s, it’s, theirs’, his’, her’s, 
and the like, are wrong when used as possessives. 
However, it’s is sometimes used as a contraction of 
it is. Do not use the incorrect forms ourn, yourn, 
hisn, hern, and theirn. 

Compounds of “ self.” The compound personal 
pronouns include myself, ourselves, yourself, your¬ 
selves, himself, herself, itself, and themselves. They 
are correctly used in a reflexive sense — that is, 
after verbs to refer back to the subject. 

1. John hurt himself. 

2. They injured themselves. 

The compound forms are also correctly used for 
emphasis — thus: 

1. George himself bought the farm. 

2. They themselves are guilty of the crime. 

They should never be used as subjects — thus: 

1. John and myself are to blame. 

2. Ourselves are in the wrong. 

3. Another boy and himself rowed the boat. 

A number of incorrect compounds have crept into 
the speech of the careless and should be studiously 
avoided. They include hisself, theirself, and a few 
others. 

Confusion of the pronoun and the adjective. A 
pronoun form should not be used for the adjectives 
this and that. It is wrong to say them hoys for 
those hoys. Remember that the plural of this is 
these and of that is those. The pronouns we and us 
may, however, be used in apposition with a substan- 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 195 


tive. We should be used with subject forms and 
us with object forms — thus: 

1. We boys built a fire. 

2. The tramp struck us boys with stones. 

3. We girls were knitting for the soldiers. 

Do not add an unnecessary personal pronoun 
after a noun. It is very poor English usage to say, 
“ James he did the work ” and “ Mother she said I 
could go.” 

By the so-called rule of courtesy the first person 
pronoun should stand last in a series — thus: 

1. John and I went to the lake. 

2. May Henry and I go ? 


Exercise 5 

Choose the correct form and give a reason for 
your choice. Improve sentences where no choice of 
form is indicated. 

1. Everybody leaves (their, his) work. 

2. My sister and (myself, I) were members. 

3. Ten other girls and (myself, I) went to a camp on the 

Meramec. 

4. Everybody was holding (their, his) breath. 

5. A group of girls and (myself, I) went on a trip. 

6. (Myself and another girl, another girl and I) went out in a 

row boat. 

7. (Me and my friend, my friend and I) could n’t manage the 

boat. 

8. Another boy and (myself, I) went fishing. 

9. (Their, there) were traces of shelves on the wall. 

10. Ulysses he got under a big ram. 

11. If one were to visit Ireland, (he, one) would find the people 

friendly. 

12. Let each do it (hieself, himself). 


196 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


13. Athene and (him, he) planned to slay the suitors. 

14. If they do not pass the test, (he, they) should be rejected. 

15. The tailor made two suits of clothes for (he, him) and 

his son. 

16. The boys who climbed the trees hurt (theirselves, them¬ 

selves) badly. 

17. (They, there) was one man who refused to join the Red 

Cross. 

18. Somebody got up and said (they, he) rose to a point of 

order. 

19. She and (him, he) left the store. 

20. Everyone will fail unless (he does his work, they .do their 

work). 

21. Maude made more money than (her, she). 

22. The students (which, who) were in the building perished in 

the fire. 

23. The city council thought (this here, this) was the right 

course to take. 

24. (Us boys, we boys) had taken some of the farmer’s apples. 

25. I think it was (him, he) who broke the lock. 

26. The maid she heard a noise in the room. 

27. We thought it was (him, he) anyway. 

28. Some friends invited my sister and (I, me). 

29. My uncle he’s a civil engineer. 

30. (Me and my brother, my brother and I) were so frightened 

that we began to run. 

31. Each player has a different part assigned to (them, him). 

32. Sister begged my brother and (I, me) to take her out of 

the boat. 

33. Henry is older than (myself, I). 

34. I spoke to everyone and saw that (they were, he was) 

seated. 

35. Central has no stars on (their, its) team. 

36. Part of (we, us) girls remained behind the rest. 

37. (Them, those) soldiers came from Jefferson Barracks. 

38. The teacher divided the candy between you and (I, me). 

39. The superintendent went with her and (I, me). 

40. The pie that was left was (oum, ours). 

41. The child cried for (it’s, its) toys. 

42. Man after man claimed that (they were, he was) opposed 

to the measure. 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 197 


43. The jury was divided in (its, their) opinions as to the guilt 

of the prisoner. 

44. The minister, with two other men, presented (themselves, 

himself) before the church board. 

45. No, it could not have been (him, he) who stole the pencil. 

46. The judge still believes it to be (them, they). 

47. The judge still believes that it is (them, they). 

48. We saw Mary and (him, he); we know it was (them, they). 

49. My uncle has invited my friend and (I, me) to go to the 

park with him. 

50. The persons (who, whom) you suspected could not have 

been (us, we). 

51. They are more anxious to fight than (us, we). 

52. A large contribution was given by the Fuller Brothers 

(who, whom) you know are very stingy. 

53. The pupil, (who, whom) I cannot doubt is guilty of 

misconduct, should be suspended. 

54. Mother believed it was (she, her) (who, whom) she saw 

in the garden. 

55. There is an ocean between the people in France and (we, us). 

56. All answered when their names were read but Harold and 

(I, me). 

57. Will mother let you and (I, me) go? 

58. (Who, whom) do you take me to be ? 

59. (Who, whom) do people say he is ? 

60. We hope it was (he, him) (who, whom) we saw. 

61. (He, him) and (I, me) are going to the ball game this 

afternoon. 

62. The waiter gave (he, him) and (I, me) both some meat. 

63. This boy is more like (he, him). 

64. This matter is of vital interest to all, you and (I, me) 

among the rest. 

65. Give the glass to (whoever, whomever) the captain desig¬ 

nates. 

66. The stranger took the boy to be (I, me). 

67. The committee offered the job to (whomever, whoever) 

wanted it. 

68. We went with her father and (she, her) to the concert. 

69. The little girl came with Henry and (I, me). 

70. The boy came by (hisself, himself). 

71. Our parents and (we, ourselves, us) are going to the country. 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


198 

72. (Whoever, whomever) he may be, he is disloyal to this 

country. 

73. You may choose (whoever, whomever) you please. 

74. I will bring my knife, and you should bring (your’s, yourn, 

yours). 

75. (Yourself, you) and Charles were appointed to member¬ 

ship on the committee. 

76. Let them begin the quarrel (themselves, theirselves). 

77. (They, themselves) and their relatives settled in the West. 

78. Mother told Mary and (I, me, myself) to go with her. 

79. I am believed to be (he, him). 

80. (Who, whom) do men say that lam? 

81. Who is at the door? It is (me, I). 

82. None dares do as (they, he) pleases. 

83. A person should not risk (their, his) life in a small boat. 

84. Each believed that (he, they) had taken the right road. 

85. (Who, whom) do you wish me to call? 

86. The crowd was so large that we could hardly force our way 

through (it, them). 

87. If Mary or Eloise disobeys the order, (she, they) will be 

punished. 

88. Six boys and (myself, I) set out across the fields to the river. 

89. Professor Naylor he kept an eye on me. 

90. Mary thought it was (me, I) who left the letter on the 

table. 

91. One of the boys he did n’t know how to swim. 

92. Any one should see that (their, his) health does not fail. 

93. Jim said another boy and (him, he) did the work. 

94. None of (we boys, us boys) could explain (their, his) 

presence at the game. 

95. Maurice (himself, hisself) had taken the last of the boxes 

from the shelf. 

96. The boy should not have taken that which was not (hisn, 

his). 

97. By sufficient evidence the prisoner was shown to be (he, 

him) who called at my house yesterday. 

98. The general will punish the offender, (whomever, whoever) 

it may be. 

99. It might have been (them, they) (who, whom) you say. 

100. May Rufus and (I, me) go to the park to-day? 

101. The child is dead (who, whom) you shot in the shoulder. 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 199 


Spelling the Plurals of Nouns. Most nouns form 
their plural by adding s or es to the singular, but 
there are some exceptions to this general rule. It 
is mainly with these exceptions that the present 
section deals. 

1. To form the plural of nouns ending in y pre¬ 
ceded by a consonant, change y to i and add es. 
Other nouns ending in y form their plural in the 
usual way. 


academy 

academies 

enemy 

enemies 

alley 

alleys 

energy 

energies 

ally 

allies 

% 

flies 

attorney 

attorneys 

journey 

journeys 

baby 

babies 

jury 

juries 

berry 

berries 

lady 

ladies 

body 

bodies 

lily 

lilies 

caddy 

caddies 

mystery 

mysteries 

chimney 

chimneys 

reply 

replies 

colloquy 

colloquies 

soliloquy 

soliloquies 

copy 

copies 

story 

stories 

daisy 

daisies 

university 

universities 

ditty 

ditties 

valley 

valleys 

doily 

doilies 

vanity 

vanities 

donkey 

donkeys 

worry 

worries 

2. To form the plural 
ending in o, add s : 

of the following nouns 

albino 

albinos 

lasso 

lassos 

alto 

altos 

piano 

pianos 

dynamo 

dynamos 

solo 

solos 

halo 

halos 

soprano 

sopranos 

3. To 
ending in 

form the plural 
o, add es : 

of the following nouns 

cargo 

cargoes 

hero 

heroes 

domino 

dominoes 

mosquito 

mosquitoes 

echo 

echoes 

motto 

mottoes 


200 JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


negro 

negroes 

tornado 

tornadoes 

potato 

potatoes 

torpedo 

torpedoes 

tomato 

tomatoes 

volcano 

volcanoes 

4. To the following 
form the plural: 

nouns ending 

in /, add s to 

belief 

beliefs 

gulf 

gulfs 

chief 

chiefs 

handkerchief 

handkerchiefs 

cliff 

cliffs 

hoof 

hoofs 

dwarf 

dwarfs 

roof 

roofs 

grief 

griefs 

safe 

safes 

5. To the following nouns ending in 
/ to v and add es to form the plural: 

f or/e, change 

beef 

beeves 

sheaf 

sheaves 

calf 

calves 

shelf 

shelves 

half 

halves 

thief 

thieves 

knife 

knives 

wife 

wives 

loaf 

loaves 

wolf 

wolves 

6. The following nouns have irregular plurals: 

child 

children 

mouse 

mice 

foot 

feet 

ox 

oxen 

goose 

geese 

tooth 

teeth 

louse 

lice 

woman 

women 


7. To form the plural of most compound words, 
add $ or es to the principal word. If the word is 
written solid, s or es should be added to the end of 
the word — as, cupfuls. Sometimes both words 
are made plural — as, men-servants. 


cupful cupfuls mouse-trap 

brother-in-law brothers-in-law man-of-war 
forget-me-not forget-me-nots man-servant 
hanger-on hangers-on Knight 

Templar 


mouse-traps 

men-of-war 

men-servants 

Knights 

Templars 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 201 


8. Troublesome plurals: 


Englishman 

Englishmen 

talisman 

talismans 

Frenchman 

Frenchmen 

Mussulman 

Mussulmans 

German 

Germans 

Norman 

Normans 

9. Plurals 

to be carefully learned : 


monsieur 

messieurs 

Jane 

Janes 

(Mr.) 

(Messrs.) 

Mrs. Lank 

the Mrs. Lanks 

madam 

mesdames 

Dr. Gray 

Drs. Gray 

Jones 

Joneses 



10. Some 

foreign plurals: 


alumna 

alumnae 

datum 

data 

alumnus 

alumni 

formula 

formulae 

analysis 

analyses 

fungus 

fungi 

axis 

axes 

genus 

genera 

bacterium 

bacteria 

larva 

larvae 

basis 

bases 

oasis 

oases 

crisis 

crises 

parenthesis 

parentheses 

criterion 

criteria 

phenomenon 

phenomena 


CHAPTER EIGHTEEN 
I. OUR POSTAL SYSTEM 

In the early history of our country the mails were 
carried on horseback, and letters were sent from 
New York to Boston only two or three times a 
week. It took more than a month to send a letter 
a distance that now requires but a single day. From 
this humble beginning our postal system has grown 
to the present complex organization. 

For the small sum of two cents you can send a 
letter entirely across the continent. If you wish 
to have it delivered as soon as it arrives at its des¬ 
tination, you merely stamp it with a ten-cent special 
delivery stamp. If you wish to send money to 
some one at a distance, you can purchase a money- 
order or send bills in a registered letter. These are 
only a few of the ways in which the postal system 
aids you. Perhaps you will want to study our 
postal system and find out for yourself in how 
many ways it aids the public. 

Project XVIII. Our Postal System and How 
It Aids the Public 

Planning the Work. Committees should be ap¬ 
pointed by the president of the class or elected to 
investigate and report on the following topics and 
the work should be taken up at once: 

1. The history of our postal system 

2. Special delivery of letters 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 203 


3. Money orders 

4. Postal-savings banks 

5. City delivery and Rural Free Delivery 

6. The Dead-letter Office 

You may plan a visit to your local post office 
where you can obtain information about stamps, 
envelopes, postal cards, money orders, and other 
things it has for sale. You may plan also a further 
study of letter writing and styles of addressing en¬ 
velopes. You or other members of your class may 
be able to suggest many additional things to be done 
in connection with this interesting project. 

Writing a Letter. Write a letter to the postmaster 
of your city or town telling him about your plans for 
the study of the postal system and asking for any 
booklets of information which he may have for 
distribution. The best one may be mailed or taken 
by the secretary when the class visits the post 
office. 

A Visit to the Post Office. With the class as a 
club and the president presiding, discuss plans for 
your visit to the post office. The president should 
ask the teacher to make a brief talk pointing out 
what you should observe particularly. You should 
make notes on the interesting information you se¬ 
cure on your visit so that you will be prepared to 
make an outline and write a report later. 

Try to secure the following information : 

1. The location of the various windows — the stamp win¬ 

dow, money-order window, registry window, and general- 

delivery window 

2. The kinds and prices of stamps, envelopes, wrappers, postal 

cards, etc. 

3. The different classes of mailable matter and the rates for 

each 


204 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


Making an Outline. Make an outline of the 
information you received from your trip and copy 
it in your notebook. Be careful to include the fol¬ 
lowing : 

1. What first-class mail matter includes and the rate 

2. What second-class mail matter includes and the rate 

3. What third-class mail matter includes and the rate 

4. Parcel-post matter, rates and rules 

Talk to the Class. Prepare a two-minute talk 
stating clearly what you learned from your trip. 
Use the outline you have already prepared. 

Abbreviations. Abbreviations should be used 
sparingly in the body of the letter. There are a 
few, however, that occur very frequently — namely, 
C.O.D., F.O.B. , a.m., p.m., a.d., b.c., etc ., i.e., and viz . 
Of course wherever statistical matter is given it 
will be permissible to use more. In headings and 
addresses the names of the months and States and 
the words street and avenue are usually abbreviated. 

Learn the abbreviations of the following titles: 


Mr. 

Mister 

Rev. 

Reverend 

Messrs. 

Messieurs 

LL.D 

Doctor of Laws 

Mrs. 



(after name) 

Prof. 

Professor 

Hon. 

Honorable 

Pres. 

President 

Gen. 

General 

Sec. 

Secretary 

Col. 

Colonel 

M.D. 

Doctor (after 

Capt. 

Captain 


name) 

D.D. 

Doctor of Di¬ 

Dr. 

Doctor 


vinity (after 


name) 

The following abbreviations of States and ter¬ 
ritories are those approved by the Post Office De¬ 
partment. Note that Idaho, Iowa, Maine, Ohio, 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 205 


Oregon, Alaska, Guam, and Samoa should not be 
abbreviated. 


Ala. 

Alabama 

Nev. 

Nevada 

Ariz. 

Arizona 

N. H. 

New Hamp¬ 

Ark. 

Arkansas 


shire 

Cal. 

California 

N. J. 

New Jersey 

Colo. 

Colorado 

N. Mex. 

New Mexico 

Conn. 

Connecticut 

N. Y. 

New York 

Del. 

Delaware 

N. C. 

North Carolina 

D. C. 

District of Co¬ 

N. Dak. 

North Dakota 


lumbia 

Okla. 

Oklahoma 

Fla. 

Florida 

Pa. 

Pennsylvania 

Ga. 

Georgia 

P. I. 

Philippine Is¬ 

Ill. 

Illinois 


lands 

Ind. 

Indiana 

P. R. 

Porto Rico 

Kans. 

Kansas 

R. I. 

Rhode Island 

Ky. 

Kentucky 

S. C. 

South Carolina 

La. 

Louisiana 

S. Dak. 

South Dakota 

Md. 

Maryland 

Tenn. 

Tennessee 

Mass. 

Massachusetts 

Tex. 

Texas 

Mich. 

Michigan 

Vt. 

Vermont 

Minn. 

Minnesota 

Va. 

Virginia 

Miss. 

Mississippi 

Wash. 

Washington 

Mo. 

Missouri 

W. Ya. 

West Virginia 

Mont. 

Montana 

Wis. 

Wisconsin 

Nebr. 

Nebraska 

Wyo. 

Wyoming 

Learn the following brief list of commercial abbre¬ 
viations : 

acct. or a/c 

account 

bldg. 

building 

agt. 

agent 

bt. 

bought 

amt. 

amount 

bu. 

bushel 

assn. 

association 

bx. 

box 

av. 

average 

C 

hundred 

Ave. 

avenue 

c. or cts. 

cents 

A1 

first class 

cap. 

capital 

bal. 

balance 

Co. 

Company 

bbl. 

barrel 

com. 

commission 

B/L 

bill of lading 

cr. 

creditor 


206 JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


cwt. 

hundredweight 

mdse. 

merchandise 

dep. 

deposit 

mfd. 

manufactured 

dept. 

department 

mfg. 

manufacturing 

doz. 

dozen 

mfr. 

manufacturer 

dr. 

debtor 

MS. 

manuscript 

exp. 

express 

No. 

number 

F.O.B. 

free on board 

O.K. 

all correct 

gal. 

gallon 

oz. 

ounce 

hhd. 

hogshead 

payt. 

payment 

Inc. 

Incorporated 

pkg. 

package 

ins. 

insured 

prox. 

next month 

inst. 

this month 

R.R. 

railroad 

int. 

interest 

Ry. 

railway 

inv. 

invoice 

St. 

street 

invt. 

inventory 

treas. 

treasurer 

jour. 

journal 

ult. 

last month 

lb. 

pound 

via 

by way of 

M 

thousand 

W/B 

waybill 


Writing a Letter. Write a letter ordering some¬ 
thing for yourself or your club. The following will 
serve as a model: 


511 Vine Street, 
Taylorville, Ill., 
May 28, 1921. 

Scruggs, Vandervoort & Barney, 

Ninth & Olive Streets, 

St. Louis, Missouri. 

Gentlemen: 

Please send me by American Express the following sporting 
goods, for which I enclose a post-office money order for $19.00: 
1 No. 1 Rawlins Official Volley Ball $10.00 

1 pair No. 40 BB Rawlins Standard 

Basketball Shoes 5.00 

2 No. 5 PG Rawlins Official Play¬ 

ground Balls at $2.00 4.00 

$19.00 

Yours truly, 

George Warren 




ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 207 


Before beginning to write an order letter, an¬ 
swer the following questions: 

. 1. Why should the heading and inside address be complete? 

2. Why should the various items be tabulated? 

3. Why should shipping directions be mentioned? 

4. Why should the amount of money, and the way in which it 

is sent, be mentioned? 

Reports of Committees. The committees ap¬ 
pointed when this project was planned should now 
be ready to report. The chairman of each will re¬ 
port orally or call on some member to do so for him. 
Important outlines should be placed on the black¬ 
board and copied in your notebooks. Two or three 
recitation periods may be required for these reports. 

Talk to the Class. Members of the class who 
have collections of stamps should bring them to 
school where they can be exhibited. Talks should 
be made on such topics as these: 

1. How to collect stamps 

2. Rare stamps in my collection 

3. What you will learn by collecting stamps 

Writing a Letter. Write a letter to an important 
firm in your city asking them to answer the follow¬ 
ing questions: 

1. Do you omit end punctuation in headings and addresses? 

2. Do you use the vertical or oblique margin in headings and 

addresses? 

3. Should the vertical or oblique margin be used in writing en¬ 

velope addresses? 

The following style of addressing envelopes is 
approved by the United States government: 

Mr. Howard Sharp, 

623 South Wabash Ave., 

Chicago, 

Illinois. 


208 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


Debate. Prepare an outline or brief on the ques¬ 
tion, “ Should all postal employees be pensioned by 
the government after twenty-five years’ service? 
When ready to give the debate, invite three persons 
to act as judges. Follow parliamentary usage. 

II. VERBS 

Careful investigation has shown that more mis¬ 
takes are made in the use of verbs than in the use 
of any other part of speech. Most of these mistakes 
occur in the failure of the verb to agree with its 
subject in person and number, in the confusion of 
the past and present tenses, and in the confusion of 
the past tense and the past participle. It will be 
necessary, therefore, to give an explanation of per¬ 
son, number, and tense of the verb. 

Person and Number. A verb that is used with 
I or we is said to be in the first person — for example, 
“ I built the house.” A verb that is used with you 
is said to be in the second person — for example, 
“You built the house.” A verb that is used with a 
third-person pronoun or noun is said to be in the 
third person . The following sentences illustrate the 
third-person form of the verb : 

1. He does the work. 

2. The carpenter does the work. 

A verb that is used with a singular subject is 
said to be in the singular number — thus, “ He 
builds the house.” A verb that is used with a 
plural subject is said to be in the plural number — 
thus, “ They build the house.” 

The verb be has more forms of person and num¬ 
ber than any other verb. It has no passive voice. 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 209 


Forms of the Verb Be 
Present 


I am 


we are 

you are 


you are 

he is 

Past 

they are 

I was 


we were 

you were 


you were 

he was 

Future 

they were 

I shall be 


we shall be 

you will be 
he will be 

Present Perfect 

you will be 
they will be 

I have been 


we have been 

you have been 
he has been 

Past Perfect 

you have been 
they have been 

I had been 


we had been 

you had been 


you had been 

he had been 


they had been 


The verb have has a great many forms that should 
be carefully learned. You will see later that it is 
used with other verbs to make the perfect-tense 
phrases. 

Forms of the Verb Have 


I have 

Present 

we have 

you have 


you have 

he has 


they have 

I had 

Past 

we had 

you had 


you had 

he had 


they had 

I shall have 

Future 

we shall have 

you will have 


you will have 

he will have 


they will have 


210 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


Present Perfect 

I have had we have had 

you have had you have had 

he has had they have had 

Tense. You have seen that a verb may change 
its form to denote present or past time — for ex¬ 
ample, writes, wrote. This change of form is called 
tense. A form that denotes present time is said to 
be in the present tense, and one that denotes past 
time is said to be in the past tense. Occasionally 
the present form denotes future time — as, “ He 
goes to Washington to-morrow.” Examples of this 
kind are very rare because there is a special verb 
phrase that denotes future time. Many years ago 
the present form had to do the work of the future 
phrase. The future verb phrase is made up of 
shall or will and the infinitive form of the verb — 
as, “ I shall go.” 

By the use of a verb phrase beginning with has, 
have, or had, a verb may be made to show completed 
action. We are accustomed to classify such phrases 
as present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect 
tenses. If the action is completed at the present 
time, have or has is used in the phrase — thus: “ I 
have driven, he has driven.” If the action was com¬ 
pleted in a definite past time, had is used in the phrase 
— thus : “1 had driven to the city yesterday.” 

In the passive voice verbs have the same tenses. 
The passive verb phrase is made up of the forms of 
the verb he and the past participle of other verbs. 
Determine the tense of each of the following passive 
verb phrases: 

1. Iam seen 

2. I was seen 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 211 


3. I shall be seen 

4. I have been seen 

5. I had been seen 

6. I shall have been seen 

Special Use of the Verb Be. Read the fol¬ 
lowing sentences and observe the use of the verb 
be: 

1. If John were here, I would help him. 

2. Were he careful, he would not have so many accidents. 

3. I wish he were here. 

4. Would that they were safe at home. 

5. She acted as if she were innocent. 

You can easily see that the form were is not used 
to denote past time. It is used for an entirely dif¬ 
ferent purpose — namely, to show that the asser¬ 
tions are not made as facts. When a speaker or 
writer wishes to state a condition that is contrary 
to fact, he uses were. Also in expressing a wish 
that is contrary to fact he uses were. Conditional 
clauses are frequently introduced by if, though, 
and unless, but the condition is by no means al¬ 
ways contrary to fact. In the following sentences 
the condition is stated as a fact or as an admission, 
and were is not used: 

1. If I was mistaken, I meant to do the right thing. 

2. If Harold was there, he did n’t see the stranger. 

3. If I was younger, I was not weaker than he. 

Sometimes the form be is used in a very formal 
and polite manner in motions and resolutions — 
thus: 

1. I move that William Brown be made chairman. 

2. It is resolved that George Wilson be given a vote of thanks. 

3. The President urged that all loyal Americans be unusually 

saving of the food supply. 


212 JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 

From this discussion you may learn that it is not 
good present-day usage to say, “ If I was you, I 
would go ” and “ I wish I was in New York.” You 
should form the habit of using were in all such cases. 

Regular and Irregular Verbs. You have no doubt 
noticed that some verbs form their past tense and 
past participle by the addition of d, ed, or t , to the 
present and that others have a change of word or a 
vowel change in the past tense. A verb that forms 
its past tense and past participle by the addition of 
d, ed, or t is called a regular verb — for example, 
walk, walked, walked. A verb that forms its past 
tense or past participle in any other way is called an 
irregular verb — for example, write, wrote, written. 
The present-tense form, or the root form, the past, 
and the past participle are called the principal parts 
of a verb. The regular verbs present practically 
no difficulties, but the irregular verbs are very fre¬ 
quently misused. The past and present-tense forms 
and the past and past-participle forms are often 
confused both in written and oral work. 

The following is a list of the principal parts of 
verbs commonly misused: 


attack 

attacked 

attacked 

be 

was 

been 

beat 

beat 

beat, beaten 

begin 

began 

begun 

break 

broke 

broken 

burst 

burst 

burst 

choose 

chose 

chosen 

cling 

clung 

clung 

come 

came 

come 

dive 

dived 

dived 

do 

did 

done 

draw 

drew 

drawn 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 213 


drink 

drank 

drunk 

drive 

drove 

driven 

drown 

drowned 

drowned 

eat 

ate 

eaten 

faU 

fell 

fallen 

fight 

fought 

fought 

fling 

flung 

flung 

flow 

flowed 

flowed 

forbid 

forbade 

forbidden 

freeze 

froze 

frozen 

get 

got 

got, gotten 

give 

gave 

given 

go 

went 

gone 

grow 

grew 

grown 

know 

knew 

known 

pay 

paid 

paid 

plead 

pleaded 

pleaded 

prove 

proved 

proved 

ride 

rode 

ridden 

ring 

rang 

rung 

run 

ran 

run 

see 

saw 

seen 

shine 

shone 

shone 

show 

showed 

shown 

shrink 

shrank 

shrunk 

sing 

sang 

sung 

slay 

slew 

slain 

sling 

slung 

slung 

speak 

spoke 

spoken 

spring 

sprang 

sprung 

take 

took 

taken 

teach 

taught 

taught 

think 

thought 

thought 

wear 

wore 

worn 

write 

wrote 

written 

The following 

verbs do not change their forms 

bid (i to offer) 

bid 

bid 

burst 

burst 

burst 

cost 

cost 

cost 


214 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


hit 

hit 

hit 

hurt 

hurt 

hurt 

let 

let 

let 

put 

put 

put 

rid 

rid 

rid 

set (i to place) 

set 

set 


Similar Verbs. Study carefully the following 
similar verbs: 

1. Sit , set. To sit means to rest. To set means to 
place something. Set is transitive and should be 
followed by an object unless it is used in the passive 
voice. There are certain idioms, however, which 
must be accepted without explanation — for ex¬ 
ample : 

1. The sun sets. 

2. We set out for the West. 

However, the normal use of these verbs is illus¬ 
trated in the following sentences: 

1. The boy sat down to rest. 

2. Henry set the box on the table. 


set 

(i transitive) 

set 

set 

sit 

( intransitive) 

sat 

sat 

2. Lie , lay. 

To lie means to recline. 

To lay means 

to place something. To 
falsehood. 

lie also means to tell a 

lay 

(transitive) 

laid 

laid 

lie 

(intransitive) 

lay 

lain 

lie 

(to tell a lie) 

lied 

lied 


The present participle of lie is lying and of lay 
is laying. 

3. Rise, raise. To rise means to ascend. To raise 
means to cause something to ascend. To raise is 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 215 


transitive, and its present participle is raising. 
The present participle of rise is rising. 

rise ( intransitive ) rose risen 

raise ( transitive ) raised raised 

4. Lose, loose. To lose means to be without some¬ 
thing. To loose means to let loose. 


lose lost lost 

loose loosed loosed 

5. Flee, fly. To flee means to run away. 

flee fled fled 

fly flew flown 

6. Bid. This verb has two sets of principal parts 
— thus: 

bid (to offer ) bid bid 

bid (to command) bade bidden 


7. Teach, learn. To teach means to impart knowl¬ 
edge and it is the teacher’s act. To learn is the 
pupil’s act. 

teach taught taught 

learn learned, learnt learned, learnt 

8. Wake, awake. To wake means to cause some one 
to awake. To awake is a person’s act of becoming 
awake. The first is transitive. 

wake waked, woke waked 

awake awaked, awoke awaked 

9. Leave, let. To let means to permit and should 
not be confused with to leave. 


leave 

let 


left 

let 


left 

let 


216 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


10. Got , have. The verb to have means to possess 
something. To get means to obtain something. 
One should not say, “ I have got a pencil”, but “ I 
have a pencil.” 

get got got, gotten 

have had had 


Exercise 1 


Choose the correct form of the verb and give a 
reason for your choice: 


1 . 

2 . 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6 . 

7. 

8 . 

9. 

10 . 

11 . 

12 . 

13. 

14. 

15. 

16. 

17. 

18. 

19. 

20 . 
21 . 
22 . 

23. 

24. 


I (seen, have seen) many such accidents. 

After we had (eat, eaten) our lunch, we went to the park. 
George (done, did) the work. 

Ida was (chose, chosen) president of her class. 

After dinner the carpenter (begun, began) to build a cabinet. 
The teacher (bid, bade) me be more prompt. 

The frost had (burst, bursted) the pipe in the yard. 

Mother told me (to lie, to lay) down and (lay, laid) the book 
by my side. 

We had (went, gone) but a short distance, when we (come, 
came) upon a large mound. 

The lady looked as if she (was, were) almost (froze, frozen) 
to death. 

We all (awoke, woke) at six o’clock. 

I had (wrote, written) a letter to my friend a few days ago. 
The leaves were (blowed, blown) over the yard. 

If I (was, were) you, I should be more careful. 

There (is, are) two questions that must be answered. 
Yesterday we (drunk, drank) from the spring. 

The prisoner was (broke, broken) in spirit. 

The pupil (done, did) as well as he could. 

The work can’t be (did, done) without great effort. 

Father ordered me to (sit, set) the box on the porch. 

We (sat, set) the hen during the week of our vacation. 

The army had (flown, fled) at the approach of the enemy. 
(Leave, let) me go. 

Each pupil (has got, has) a book. 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 217 


25. You (have got, have) to do as the employer commands. 

26. No one has money (to loose, to lose). 

27. Will it be safe if I (lie, lay) here for an hour ? 

28. This crime has (shook, shaken) men’s confidence in real 

estate men. 

29. The mason has (lain, laid) all the brick. 

30. When I had (sat, set) there for a while, I decided to go. 

31. My friend has (showed, shown) me many favors. 

32. After we had (shook, shaken) hands, we parted. 

33. The curtain (raises, rises) at eight o’clock. 

34. The children (rose, raised) their hands. 

35. No one (bid, bade) more than a dollar for the cake. 

36. Hector was (slayed, slain) by Achilles. 

37. (Lose, loose) him and (let, leave) him go. 

38. The giant (drunk, drank) all the wine. 

39. The bell (rung, rang) early yesterday. 

40. I have (saw, seen) many good shows in my time. 

41. When we had (rose, risen), we prepared to (sit, set) out for 

the village. 

42. He (laid, lay) his burden down and (sat, set) down near it. 

43. The birds had (fled, flew, flown) to the tall trees in the forest. 

44. The ship (lay, laid) quietly at anchor. 

45. Having (rode, ridden) to the store, he bought supplies. 

46. The boy (pled, pleaded) with his father for his forgiveness. 

47. The robber (burst, busted) open the door. 

48. The girl had (forgot, forgotten) her promise. 

49. The child was (laying, lying) near the fire. 

50. When we had (went, gone) many miles on our journey, we 

saw the prisoner who had (flown, fled). 

51. Would that I (was, were) in France. 

52. I (taken, took) him to be the captain of the team. 

53. The Indians (slain, slayed, slew) all the women and children. 

54. The boy (throwed, threw) a stone through the window. 

55. The anchor was (throwed, thrown) overboard. 

56. The sun (shone, shown, shined) very brightly. 

57. I move that William (be, is) elected chairman. 

58. I (done, did) the best I could. 

59. The sun (sits, sets) in the west. 

60. The chairman (rose, raised). 

61. (Raising, rising) to his feet, the stranger began to speak. 

62. The boy (got, has) the book from the shelf. 


218 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


63. The swimmer (dove, dived) into the water. 

64. The tramp (eat, et, ate) his lunch by the roadside. 

65. After he had (eat, et, eaten), he (set, sat) out for a long 

journey. 

Some Common Errors. Note carefully the fol¬ 
lowing errors: 

1. The expression had ought should not be used. 
It is better to say simply ought, should, or should 
have — thus: 

1. The boy ought to have studied. 

2. The work should have been done. 

3. The pupils should study. 

2. When you use the past infinitive, you should 
not put in the preposition of. Be careful to say to 
have gone, to have seen, to have done, etc. Do not 
say to of gone, to of seen, and to of done. 

3. Do not use of instead of have after ought, could, 
must, had, etc. Write these expressions as follows: 

1. He ought to have done the work, (not ought of) 

2. George should have come earlier, (not should of) 

3. The baby must have fallen, (not must of) 

4. If he had done the work, he would be paid, (not had of) 

5. The secretary should not have written the letter, (not should 

not of) 

6. One ought not to do an injustice to a child, (not hadn't ought) 

4. Do not omit the infinitive after the verb want 
in various colloquial expressions. 

1. I want to come in. (not I want in) 

2. I want to go out. (not I want out) 

3. I want to get off. (not I want off) 

5. Do not confuse verbs and nouns — such as lend 
and loan, choose and choice, shoot and shots. Lend 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 219 


is a verb and loan is a noun; choose is a verb and 
choice is a noun. 

1. The banker will lend me the money. 

2. I arranged for a loan. 

3. It is my choice, (not choose) 

4. We heard the shots, (not shoots ) 

Common Contractions. In ordinary English you 
are no doubt accustomed to the use of a great 
many contractions. It is, therefore, well to learn 
the most common of them. An apostrophe shows 
that a letter or letters have been left out. 


is not 

isn’t 

was not 

was n’t 

does not 

does n’t 

did not 

did n’t 

has not 

has n’t 

should not 

should n’t 

could not 

could n't 

are not 

are n’t 

were not 

were n’t 

have not 

have n’t 

do not 

don’t 

would not 

would n’t 

I will 

I ’ll 

we will 

we ’ll 

you will 

you ’ll 

he will 

he ’ll 

they will 
they are 
you have 

they ’ll 
they ’re 
you’ve 

where is 

where’s 

it is 

it’s 


The word ain’t should never be used. If you 
want to use a contracted form, you should find the 
right one. Use isn’t and aren’t instead of this 


220 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


form. Also be careful to use hasn’t and haven’t 
for ain’t got and hain’t got. 

1. I haven't my book. 

2. The little girl has n't any pencil. 

Remember that you should use don’t only where 
do not would be correct. Always use does n’t with 
a singular third person pronoun or noun as subject 
— thus: 

1. He does n't write well. 

2. John does n't know me. (not don't know) 


CHAPTER NINETEEN 


I. REPORTING VISITS TO POINTS OF 
INTEREST 

Visits to factories and other points of interest 
will be instructive and will furnish many occasions 
for speaking and writing. You will want to tell 
other classes about your trip and, therefore, should 
write an account of it. The best one should be 
sent to the school paper. 

Project XIX. Visiting a Factory or Museum 

Talk to the Class. With the class as a club and 
the president or some other member presiding, make 
a talk in which you suggest some interesting place 
to visit — such as, a shirt factory, a candy factory, 
a coffee and spice concern, a tobacco factory, an 
electrical company, the Art Museum, etc. Begin 
as follows: “ Mr. President, I wish to tell the class 
what factory or museum we should visit.” When 
all have finished speaking, the class should vote to 
decide what place shall be visited. 

Planning the Visit. The president of the class 
should call on the teacher to explain the purpose of 
the visit and to state what he wishes each pupil to 
observe most carefully. Each member of the class 
should act as a reporter and write an interesting 


222 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


account of the trip. Make such interviews as may 
be possible while at the factory and take notes on 
any points that will have value as news. 

Writing a Letter. Write a letter to the company 
asking permission to visit the factory. State the 
purpose of the visit, the number in the class, and 
the time when you prefer to come. The best letter 
should be mailed. 

Talk to the Class. Prepare a two-minute talk in 
which you tell about an interesting incident that 
occurred on your trip. 

Written English. Prepare a written report of your 
trip. Make sure that your account possesses unity, 
coherence, and emphasis. Unity means holding 
to the point — that is, telling only what happened 
on the visit. Coherence means telling things in the 
right order — the time order, in this case, or the 
order in which things occurred. Emphasis means 
giving more space to the important ideas. In order 
to secure these qualities, prepare an outline and 
strike out everything that does not belong to your 
subject. Next arrange each point in the proper 
order. You can take care of emphasis in the actual 
writing of your report by giving more details to 
important points. 

When all reports are ready, they should be read 
to the class. Then a vote should be taken to deter¬ 
mine which is the most interesting news article. 
The best one can be submitted to the school paper. 

Writing a Letter. If you wish to work in a factory 
or other business house during the summer vacation 
or on Saturdays, write a letter applying for the po¬ 
sition. Most applications are made orally, but a 
brief letter is generally written asking for an inter- 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 223 


view. The following letter may be used as a 
model: 


The Phoenix Pharmacy Company, 
Jefferson and Cass Avenues, 

St. Louis, Missouri. 


5606 Etzel Avenue, 

St. Louis, Missouri, 
June 20, 1923. 


Gentlemen: 

Through your advertisement in to-day’s Globe-Democrat, I 
learn that you wish to employ a reliable boy to work in your 
drug store. Believing that I am qualified to do the work, I 
wish to make application for the position. 

I am fourteen years of age and in perfect health. I have almost 
completed my second year in the junior high school. Last sum¬ 
mer I was employed at the Butler Brothers’ Pharmacy in this 
city, and I wish to refer you to the manager, Mr. Clark Reade, 
1020 Lackland Avenue. I wish also to refer you to the pastor 
of our church, Rev. George Smith, 1220 Lackland Avenue, who 
will be glad to answer any questions concerning my character. 

If you are interested in my application, I shall be glad to call 
at the store to-morrow morning or at any other convenient time. 

Yours very truly, 

Charles Ring. 


Dramatizing the Interview. Having secured an 
interview, you should make the most of it. This 
means that you must be prepared to state your quali¬ 
fications and experience. You must be especially 
careful about your manners and language. Polite¬ 
ness and good English have secured many a good 
job. 

Choose some one of your classmates to play the 
part of employer and hold an interview with him. 
Present the points mentioned in the foregoing para¬ 
graph and make your answers polite and convincing. 


224 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


II. THE VERB {Continued) 

Shall and Will. If shall and will were used merely 
as signs of the future tense, they would require very 
little study; but they are used to express other 
ideas. 

1. To express simple futurity use shall with I and 
we , and will with all other subjects. 


Singular 
I shall write 
you will write 
he will write 


Plural 

we shall write 
you will write 
they will write 


2. To express volition (determination, command, 
promise) in the mind of the speaker use will with / 
and we , and shall with all other subjects. 


Singular 

I will write 
you shall write 
he shall write 


Plural 

we will write 
you shall write 
they shall write 


3. In questions use shall with I and we, and with 
other subjects use the auxiliary expected in the 
answer — thus: 

1. Shall we report to-morrow? 

2. Will you assist me ? (Promise. I will.) 

3. Shall James accompany us? (Answer. He shall.) 

4. Will the manuscript be completed to-morrow? (Future 

time. It will.) 


4. In indirect speech to express another’s thought 
for both futurity and volition (promise, deter¬ 
mination, etc.) use the same auxiliary that he him¬ 
self would use. Determine what auxiliary would 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 225 


be used if the subordinate clause were an inde¬ 
pendent one. 

1. George says that he will go with us to the city. 

(Independent: I will go with you.) 

2. Henry thinks that he shall be misunderstood. 

(Independent: I shall be misunderstood.) 

3. The Board of Education has decided that the school 

shall be closed. 

(Independent: The school shall be closed.) 

Should and Would. Note carefully the following 
rules: 

1. Should and would are the past tense forms of 
shall and will and are so used when they express 
futurity or determination in some past time — thus: 

1. I knew that I should succeed. 

2. I knew that you would succeed. 

3. John said that he would do the work. 

4. I promised that I would do the work. 

2. Should is used in conditional clauses — thus : 

1. If I should act unjustly, I should gain nothing. 

2. If you should act unjustly, you would gain nothing. 

3. If he should act unjustly, he would gain nothing. 

3. Should is often used to express the idea of duty 
— thus: 


Children should obey their parents. 

4. Should and would are often used in softened 
statements — thus: 

1. I should think so. 

2. Lastly, I should advise. 

3. I would urge. 


226 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


Exercise 1 

Choose the correct form and give a reason for 
your choice. 

1. I (shall, will) meet you at the city hall. 

2. We (shall, will) then continue our studies. 

3. I (shall, will) be pleased to meet your cousin. 

4. No one (shall, will) injure this little child if I can prevent it. 

5. You (will, shall) find the superintendent a pleasant old 

gentleman. 

6. He (will, shall) be glad to accommodate you. 

7. Yes, I (shall, will) certainly do my duty. 

8. When (shall, will) we see you again? 

9. Mary promised that she (should, would) come earlier. 

10. If I (should, would) fail to do my duty, I should regret it. 

11. (Shall, will) your clerk wait on me now ? 

12. Arthur (will, shall) have his own way in this matter. 

13. What (will, shall) he think of our failure to obey him? 

14. I asked him if he (would, should) be there. 

15. I (will, shall) drown; nobody (shall, will) help me. 

16. “They (shall, will) not pass,” said the French. 

17. The French said that the Germans (should, would) not pass. 

18. (Shall, will) we yield to a foreign foe? 

19. As much as I (should, would) regret to part with my money, 

I (should, would) give it all for my country. 

20. What (would, should) you do if you were in my place? 

May and Might, Can and Could. Note the fol¬ 
lowing rules: 

1. May is the auxiliary that is commonly used 
to assert permission. 

(1) May I go with you? 

(2) You may proceed. 

May is also used to express a wish — for example, 
“ May you live to see many more happy years.” 
It is often used to express possibility — for example, 
“ The old lady thinks her son may be somewhere 
in France.” Might is the past tense of may. 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 227 


2. Can is used to assert power or ability. It should 
never be used to take the place of may to denote 
permission. In the following sentences it denotes 
power or ability: 

1. We can lift the box. 

2. Can we solve the problem? (Could is the past tense of can.) 


Exercise 2 


Choose the correct word and give a reason for your 
choice. 

1. (Can, may) a man do ten men’s work? 

2. (May, can) I go with you to the concert? 

3. Yes, you (can, may) use my car to-day. 

4. How (could, might) you do such a thing? 

5. The manager said I (could, might) have the position. 

6. You (can, may) have my pencil for a while. 

7. No one (may, can) do as he pleases. 

8. You (might, could) do the work better if you were larger 

9. He said that you (could, might) go. 

10. Two (can, may) do more work than one. 

Pronunciation. Inaccurate pronunciation of the 
common verbs has become so general that a few 
remarks on this subject may be helpful. In ordinary 
English you frequently hear get called git and have 
to called haf to. If you will observe the speech of 
your classmates, you will doubtless hear many others 
— such as wuz (was), gonna (going to), ketch (catch), 
attacted (attacked), and the like. 

How should the following verbs be pronounced? 


heard 

attacked 

drowned 

catch 


wept 

don’t know 
wasn’t 
can’t you 


228 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


Remember to pronounce the final g in the ing 
endings. Say running (not running. Pronounce 
the following words correctly: 


writing 

studying 

stopping 

reading 

staying 

spelling 

fighting 

referring 

holding 

rolling 

helping 

controlling 

tying 

suffering 


CHAPTER TWENTY 


I. A READING CLUB 

On the shelves of the public library you will find 
hundreds of books — fiction, biography, travel, 
popular science, current events, poetry, and drama. 
You should learn to enjoy at least several from each 
group. The books are not all equally good. Some 
will give more pleasure and inspire higher ideals of 
life than others. You cannot read them all — only 
the best and most profitable. What books, there¬ 
fore, should be selected? How can you get the 
most pleasure from your reading? How can you 
encourage others to read the books you like? It 
should prove interesting to choose a list of desirable 
books, to read many of them, to dramatize scenes 
from the best chapters, and to report on them. This 
purpose can best be accomplished through the organ¬ 
ization of a reading club. 

Project XX. Conducting a Reading Club 

Planning the Work. Although your class is al¬ 
ready organized, it will be advisable to organize 
a reading club as a separate society with its own 
president and librarian. The president may then 
divide the membership into groups for the purpose 
of exchanging books and undertaking other divisions 
of the work that may be necessary. 


230 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


As far as possible, the club should work out its 
own plan. The following suggestions, however, 
may prove helpful: 

First, select a list of books suitable for your 
grade. Ask your parents and teacher to name de¬ 
sirable titles and write a letter to the librarian of 
the public library to send you a list. Second, 
to encourage reading, provide certificates or but¬ 
tons to be given to each member who reads a given 
number of books, say five. The librarian should 
keep a record of the books read by each pupil and 
should issue all certificates or buttons. 

Begin the reading of some good hook at once. 

The following is a suggestive list of books, to which 
the club may add others or from which it may choose 
such as it desires: 


Polly Oliver’s Problem.Wiggin 

The Secret Garden.Burnett 

Being a Boy.Warner 

Prince and Pauper.Clemens 

Tom Sawyer .Clemens 

The Christmas Carol.Dickens . 

An Italian School Boy’s Journal.De Amicis 

Stories of Inventions.Doubleday 

Jackanapes.Ewing 

An Indian Boyhood.Eastman 

Geographical Readers.Carpenter 

Anne of Green Gables.Montgomery 

A New England Boyhood.Hale 

Nights with Uncle Remus.Harris 

The Dawn of American History.Nida 

The Call of the Wild.London 

Nobody’s Boy.Malot 

Campfire Girls of Brightwood.Blanchard 

Katrina.Deland 

Montcalm and Wolfe .Parkman 

A Pretty Tory ............ Lincoln 






















ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 231 


Mrs. Wiggs of the Cabbage Patch.Rice 

The Deerslayer .Cooper 

Emmy Lou.Madden 

Undine ..FouquS 

The Story of King Arthur and His Knights . . Pyle 
Heroes of the Middle West .Catherwood 


Talk to the Class. Prepare a two-minute talk in 
which you tell the members of your club about the 
most interesting book you have ever read. State 
the title and the name of the author. Let your pur¬ 
pose be to stimulate interest in the book. Do not 
tell so much as to defeat your puTpose. Instead 
of giving the whole plot of a story, for example, 
select a striking or amusing episode, a vivid de¬ 
scription, or an interesting character. 

Writing a Letter. Write a letter to the librarian of 
the public library asking him to send you a list of 
books suitable for pupils of the eighth grade. Tell him 
about your reading club and the purpose for which 
it was formed. The best letter should be mailed. 

A Visit to the Public Library. Plan a visit to the 
public library, the purpose being to get better ac¬ 
quainted with the books it contains and how to find 
them. Find out all you can about the following: 

1. The titles of the leading reference books and where they 

can be found 

2. The children’s reading room and the classes of books it 

contains 

3. How to use the card catalogue 

4. Readers’ Guide to Periodical Literature 

Put in your notebooks the titles of the leading 
reference books. 

Written English. Choose an interesting character 
from a book you have just read and write a theme 






232 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


about him. Tell why you admire him. Perhaps 
you will prefer to trace briefly his part in the story. 
If time permits, these character sketches should be 
read to the club and the most interesting one chosen 
by vote. 

Writing a Dialogue. Write an imaginary dialogue 
between two characters taken from books you have 
read. Quotation marks are not required to inclose 
each speech. Merely set down the name of the 
speaker before each speech. Read your dialogue to 
the club. The best one may be sent to the school 
paper. 

Dramatization. Dramatize interesting scenes or 
chapters from a book you have read. Read your 
work to the club. When all have read, decide by 
vote who has written the best play. The club 
should then offer criticism to improve the work, and 
when the final draft has been prepared, members 
should be assigned to act the various parts. After 
several rehearsals, the play should be given at an 
assembly session or before another class invited as 
your guests. 

Talk to the Class. The club should now hear 
oral reports on books that have been read. Per¬ 
haps several recitation periods will be required. 
Each member should try to make his report so in¬ 
teresting that others will want to read the book 
he reviews. Be especially careful not to give so 
many details as to make your report tiresome. Un¬ 
less you can think of a better plan, you may use 
the following outline: 

1. The title of the book and the name of the author 

2. The story in a few well-selected sentences 

3. The most striking scenes 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 233 


4. The most interesting characters 

5. Why I liked the book 

Giving a Club Program. In concluding the work 
of this project, prepare an interesting program con¬ 
sisting of the best work done in the reading club. 
The following is intended to be merely suggestive 
of the work that can be given: 

Library Club Program: 

1. Talk by a pupil on the life of the favorite author of the Read¬ 

ing Club 

2. Song by the club 

3. Dramatization of an interesting scene 

4. Talk by the librarian of the Public Library 

5. Report of the librarian of the Reading Club 


II. INDEPENDENT EXPRESSIONS AND 
APPOSITIVES 

Direct Address. You have learned that nouns 
and pronouns may be used as subject or object. 
Another use should now be added—namely, the noun 
as the name of the person or thing spoken to, or 
addressed. Read carefully the following sentences: 

1. John , bring me the book. 

2. You cannot go, William. 

3. Old Horse , you must be very old. 

4. Mighty fortress, you have been the center of many an interest¬ 

ing scene. 

5. Do you think, sir, that I am a thief? 

6. Don’t do that, you villain! 

Occasionally a pronoun is used in direct address. 

1. Come here — you in the blue suit. 

2. I beg you to listen — you who are interested in good speeches. 


234 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


Exclamation. A noun may be used independently 
in exclamations. 

1. A sail! A sail! how I wish we could see a sail! 

2. Goodness! what a mistake you have made! 

3. Oh, the joy of living! 

Many words are similarly used to express sudden 
feeling — such as ah , oh, alas, pshaw, fie, hurrah , and 
ha. They are called interjections. Many authors 
hold that the interjection is used independently, but 
you should perhaps consider it as a modifier of the 
entire assertion with which it occurs. Sometimes 
the feeling of the speaker or writer is not confined 
to a single word, but runs through the whole sen¬ 
tence. Such a sentence is said to be exclamatory. 
“ Behold! behold! Ernest is himself the likeness 
of the Great Stone Face! ” In speaking, a sentence 
may be made exclamatory by inflection and accent. 
In writing, a sentence may be designated as exclam¬ 
atory by the exclamation point at the close. 

Independent Infinitive Expressions. Sometimes 
infinitives are used independently, as in the fol¬ 
lowing : 

1. To tell the truth, I do not like my work. 

2. Speaking generally, men are less patient than women. 

3. To be sure, they cannot succeed. 

4. To be exact, there were four thousand. 

Your attention has already been called to the 
noun and participle in the absolute phrase as making 
up an expression seemingly independent, but having 
the force of an adverbial modifier. 

Appositives. A noun is often added to another to 
explain it. When so used it is said to be in appo- 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 235 


sition with the noun it explains. Notice the nouns 
in apposition in the following sentences: 

1. John, the carpenter , called to-day. 

2. My mother, a woman of eighty, died this year. 

3. Our principal, an old gentleman , was absent to-day. 

4. The tall building, the observation tower, cost a hundred thou¬ 

sand dollars. 

5. We gave the work to our servant, an old negro. 

Sometimes a pronoun is used as an appositive 
modifier. 

1. That boy, he in the red sweater, made a touchdown. 

2. He is an infidel, one who does not believe in God. 

An appositive may be a series of words explaining 
a general or formal term. Sometimes such a series 
is introduced by namely, as, such as, for example, 
and the like. 

1. Germany has produced many things that we need badly — 

dyes, chemicals , and medical instruments. 

2. Three States I have known intimately — namely, Indiana, 

Illinois, and Missouri. 

3. I have read many good books in my high-school days — such 

as, Robinson Crusoe, Henry Esmond, and Silas Marner. 

Again, a noun may be in apposition with an entire 
predication. 

Father liked to tell humorous stories, a habit his sons also have. 


Exercise 1 

Select and explain the independent expressions 
in the following sentences. Find nouns and pro¬ 
nouns in direct address. 

1. William, bring me your book. 

2. The sheriff, a man of fifty, seemed very active. 


236 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


3. The success of the war, a thing that interested all of us, 

depended on our ability to save. 

4. There were three sports which my brother enjoyed — 

namely, hunting, fishing, and racing. 

5. Good heavens! what a brilliant stroke he made! 

6. In France — the land of liberty, equality, and fraternity — 

a woman is not even allowed to vote for a man. 

7. There is indeed one thing for which we are all fighting — 

democracy. 

8. Good-by, old Year, we will meet you again in the Judgment. 

9. Generally speaking, girls have better memory than boys. 

10. Oh! the agony of the prison camps! may every one of you 

escape it! 

11. The giant represents strength of body, or brute force. 

12. The Pankhurst family split up into two factions — the one 

pacifist, the other militarist. 

13. Poor man! He died there of fever the next year. 

14. Rembrandt, the greatest painter of the seventeenth century, 

was born at Leyden, Holland, July 15, 1607. 

Analysis. Notice carefully the analysis of the 
following sentences: 

1. “Henry, bring me the chair.” 

This is a declarative sentence. The subject is 
“ you ” understood, and the word “ Henry” is 
independent by address. The complete predicate 
is “ bring me the chair ”, of which “ bring ” is the 
predicate verb and “ chair ” the object. The word 
“ me ” is the indirect object. 

2. “John, the architect, built the house.” 

This is a declarative sentence. The complete 
subject is “ John, the architect ”, of which “ John ” 
is the subject substantive and “ architect ” a noun 
in apposition with it. The complete predicate is 
“ built the house ”, of which “ built ” is the predi¬ 
cate verb and “ house ” the object. 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 237 

3. “Poor boy! He will never return from France.” 

This is a declarative sentence. The subject is 
u He ”, and the complete predicate “ will never re¬ 
turn from France.” The predicate verb is “ will 
return ”, and the phrase “ from France ” is an ad¬ 
verbial modifier of the verb. The exclamation 
“ Poor boy ” is used independently. 

4. “ To tell the truth, none was prepared for the shock.” 

This is a declarative sentence. The subject is 
“ none ”, and the complete predicate is “ was pre¬ 
pared for the shock.” The predicate verb is “ was 
prepared.” The prepositional phrase “ for the 
shock ” is adverbial and modifies the predicate verb. 
“ To tell the truth ” is an infinitive used independ¬ 
ently. 


Exercise 2 

Analyze the following sentences : 

1. Mexico, our neighbor, has not been a good friend. 

2. There were six great New England poets — Bryant, Whit¬ 

tier, Longfellow, Holmes, Emerson, and Lowell. 

3. Alas! How he has degenerated! 

4. The child always was unfortunate, poor Bessie! 

5. Noise! I have never heard such a noise before. 

6. Mr. Wilson, the recent President, was a college professor. 

7. Give this package to Mr. Jones, the hardware dealer. 

8. Many centuries ago the Romans conquered the Belgians, 

one of the bravest races in the world. 

9. The house, a work of art, was the pride of the community. 

10. The general advanced to the hills, nature’s great fortress. 

Punctuation. A noun used in direct address 
should be set off by commas—as, “Henry, bring me 
the letter.” 


238 


JUNIOR ENGLISH COURSE 


An appositive expression should generally be set 
off by commas. 

1. The candidate, Mr. Hughes, spoke in the afternoon. 

2. The Jefferson Memorial, a building of white stone, is a very 

imposing structure. 

Sometimes an appositive is so closely connected 
with the word it modifies that no commas are neces¬ 
sary. 

1. I myself know the circumstances. 

2. Your brother George. 

Appositives introduced by as, namely, such as, 
for example, and the like, are generally set off by the 
dash. 

There are two very important parts of speech — namely, 
nouns and verbs. 

If the expression comes at the close of the sen¬ 
tence and if the introductory word is omitted, it 
is set off by the dash. 

1. One man I hate — the coward. 

2. Two things I want — money and friends. 

Independent expressions, unless exclamatory, are 
set off by a comma. 

1. To be sure, I will do the work. 

2. Speaking generally, the work is a failure. 

An exclamatory sentence should be followed by an 
exclamation point. When the feeling culminates 
in a single word, an interjection, the point is also 
used after the word. 


Alas! How time has changed him! 


ENGLISH FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 239 


Exercise 3 

Punctuate the following sentences: 

1. What a dirty and tumbled down place this is 

2. In this country we should have but one class of people 

Americans 

3. The more the children know, the more they want the best 

for the city good roads fine water safety from fire honest 
and truthful officers 

4. Ohio officially adopted McKinley's favorite flower the scarlet 

carnation as its emblem 

5. There is the barrel cactus or visnaga which often comes to 

the traveler's rescue in the desert 

6. To be sure cheap coal is not so good as the expensive 

varieties 

7. Gentlemen we must support the soldiers in the training 

camps 

8. Children obey your parents 

9. The name columbine comes from the Latin for dove 

10. Charles the First was an unfortunate king 

11. There are two books I like to read namely Treasure Island 

and Tom Brown’s School Days 

12. Some cities were planned so that they would become beauti¬ 

ful places such as Washington D C 

13. Washington our first president was very popular with the 

people 

14. As Black Beauty the horse in the story worked better for 

being happy and comfortable so may we 

15. General Pershing our commander in France thought the 

war would last two years longer 






/ 


























INDEX 


Abbreviations, 69-70, 204-206 
Absolute phrase, 66 
Active voice, 43 
Address, direct, 233 
of letters, 70-71 
Adjectives, 30, 86-89, 193-194 
clause, 139-145 
defined, 30 
possessive, 193-194 
predicate, 30 
Adverbs, 86-89 
Adverbial objective, 46-47 
Advertisements, writing, 150 
Analysis, 31-32, 48-50, 63-65, 
102-104, 236-237 
compound sentence, 124-125 
complex sentence, 142-143, 
155-156, 166-167 
simple, compound, complex, 
174-178 

Antecedent, 189, 193 
Appositives, 234-239 
Auxiliary verbs, 58-65 

Bid , 215 

Body of letter, 71 
Book list, 106-107, 230-231 
Business letters, 67-74 
parts of, 68-70 

Campaigns 

“Know Your State”, 136-139 
thrift, 146-152 
sales, 160-162 


Can, could , 226 
Capitalization, 183 
Case, 185-186 
Class magazine, 20 
Clause, 100-104 
adjectival, 101, 139-145 
adverbial, 101, 152-159 
principal, 141-142 
subordinate, 139-142, 152-159 
substantive, 101, 162-169 
Clubs, school, 67, 80 
reading, 105-108, 229-233 
civics, 126-129 
Coherence, 222 

Combining assertions, 132-133 
Commercial paper, 73 
Committees, reports of, 9, 10, 93, 
100, 129, 138, 150, 180, 181, 
207 

Complimentary close, 72 
Conjugation of shall, will, 224 
Conjunctions, 120-121 
coordinate, 153, 157, 164 
subordinate, 141, 152-153 
Connectives, 121, 123 
mistaking adverbs for true 
connectives, 129-132 
Conversation, 10, 20 
Contractions of verbs, 219-220 

Debate, 19, 20, 86, 93-94, 208 
brief, 94 

public debate, 179-182 
Declarative sentence, 13 


241 



242 


INDEX 


Dialogue, 232 

Dramatization, 33-41, 138-139, 
232 

Rip Van Winkle, 34-39 
sale, 161-162 
interview, 223-224 

Emphasis, 222 
Envelope address, 73 
Exclamation, 234 
Exclamation point, 15 
Exclamatory sentence, 13 

Flee, fly, 215 
Folding letters, 73 
Friendly letter, 80-83 
Future tense, 75-76 

Gender, 185 
Gerund, 59, 61-65 
Got, have, 216 

Heading of a letter, 69 
Health campaign, 90-94 
creed, 91 
bulletin, 93 

class department of health, 93 
Imagination, 8 

Independent expressions, 233-239 
infinitive, 234 
Indirect object, 45-46 
Infinitive, 59-65 
Interrogation point, 15 
Interrogative sentence, 13 
Interview, 223-224 
Intransitive and transitive verbs, 
41-45 

Introductory adverbial clauses, 
158-159 

Lay, lie, 214 
Leave, let, 215 
Letterhead, 69 

Letters, 74,85, 86, 92, 94, 99,107, 


108, 117, 128, 137, 138, 139, 
148, 152, 161, 162, 173, 207, 
222-223, 231 
invitation, 86, 129 
challenging to debate, 180 
to postmaster, 203 
ordering goods, 206-207 
Library, visiting, 28, 29 
Like, as if, 108-110 
Linking verb, 29-32, 41, 44-45, 
164, 192 

distinguished from transitive, 
44 

Lose, loose, 215 

Magazines and periodicals, 27 
travel, 170-174 

Material, sources of, 3-11, 27-29 
May, might, 226-227 
Modifiers, 86-89 
Mood, 74-75 

Motion-picture drama, 19 
Motives for composition, 17 

News articles, 182 
Newspapers, 28, 29 
Non-essential clauses, 158 
Notebook work, 10, 107 
Notes, formal and informal, 
83-85 

Noun clause, 162-169 
Nouns, 11, 182-184, 199-201 
common and proper, 182-184 
compound, 183 
plurals, 199-201 
Number, 199-201 

Object, 42-46 
indirect, 45-46 
retained, 46 

Objective, adverbial, 46-47 
Objective predicate, 47-48 
Organizing the class, 8 
I Outline, 54, 56, 57, 204 




INDEX 


243 


Paragraphing, 53-56 
conversation, 55-56 
Participle, 59, 60-65 
Passive voice, 43-44, 46 
Past tense, 75 
Period, 14 
Phrase, verb, 25 
adjectival, 95 
adverbial, 95 

Planning, 9, 21, 39, 40, 56-57, 68- 
74, 91, 98-99, 105-107, 136- 
137, 146, 160-161, 170-172, 
179-180, 202-203, 221-222, 
229-231 

Play, preparing a, 94, 138-139 
Possessive form, 187-189 
Postal system, 202-207 
Posters, 80, 92, 99, 147 
thrift, 148, 149, 162 
Predicate, 11, 21-25, 26, 30-31 
complete, 22 
compound, 22, 219 
nominative, 30-31 
simple, 22 

Predicate nominative, 30-31 
Preposition, 94 
Prepositional phrase, 94-97 
Present tense, 75 
perfect, 76 

Principal parts, 212-216 
Programs, 21, 41, 58, 117 
historical, 138 
library clubs, 233 
Pronouns 

classes, 189-191 
forms, 191-193 
compounds of self, 194 
Pronunciation, 227-228 
Punctuation, 14 
appositives, 238 
complex sentence, 143-145, 
157-159 

compound sentence, 121-124, 
129-135 
dialogue, 33 


direct address, 237 
independent expressions, 238 
in letters, 69-72 
participial expressions, 65-66 
yes, no, 135 

Pupil government, 18-19 

Question, 13 
Quotation, 33 

Raise, rise, 214-215’ 

Reading club, 105-108 
Reference books, 27 
Relative clauses, 139-145 
Relative pronouns, 139-141 
Rip Van Winkle, dramatized, 
34-39 

Safety-first campaign, 98-110 
Salutation, 71 
School activities, 18 
School paper, 19-20, 51-58, 113 
Sentence, 11-14 
classified as to form, 118-125 
classified as to meaning, 13 
complex, 139-145, 152-159, 

162-169 

compound, 119-145 
Shall, will, 224-226 
Should, would, 225-226 
Signature, 72 
Sit, set, 214 

Skeleton of a sentence, 23-26 
Social letters, 80-86 
Speaking, interesting material 
for, 3 

Spelling, difficult verb forms, 
78-79 

plurals, 199-201 
Stationery, 71-73 
Stories and articles, preparing, 
51-53 

Subject of theme, narrowing, 5,10 
selecting suitable, 115 
Subject of a sentence, 11, 21-26, 
118-119 



244 


INDEX 


Subject substantive, 23 
Substantive, 22-26, 182-201 
Substantive clause, 162-169 

Tableau, 139 

Talks, 9,10, 20, 21, 28, 29, 57-58, 
67, 80, 91, 92, 99, 107, 116- 
117, 127, 129, 180, 204, 207, 
221, 222, 231, 232 
retelling, 39, 40 
historical, 137 
thrift, 148, 152 
travel, 172, 173 
Tense, 76-79, 210-211 
Theme subjects, 4-10, 56-57, 
115-116 

There, introductory, 163 
Thrift book, 150-151 
Title, writing, 6 
To he, to have been, 192-193 
Transitive, intransitive verbs, 
41-50 

Travel magazine, 170-174 
Unity, 222 


Verbs 

can and could, 226-227 
common contractions, 219-220 
conjugation of he and have, 
209-210 
linking, 29-32 
may and might, 226-227 
mood, 74-79 

person and number, 208-210 
principal parts, 212-216 
regular and irregular, 212-220 
shall, will, 224-226 
similar verbs, 214-216 
special use of he, 211-212 
Verbals, 58-62 
Verb phrases, 25, 62-63 
Visits, 221-223, 231 
Voice, 43-44, 48 

Wake, awake, 215 
Written English, 10, 21, 29, 39, 
40, 57, 58, 74, 117, 128, 172, 
173, 181, 222, 231-232 
Writers’ contests, 56-58, 115 
Writing, interesting material for, 3 








Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process. 
Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide 
Treatment Date: May 2011 

PreservationTechnologies 

A WORLD LEADER IN COLLECTIONS PRESERVATION 

111 Thomson Park Drive 
Cranberry Township, PA 16066 
(724) 779-2111 











